GS Paper I — Heritage & Culture, History, Geography, Society

Indian heritage and culture; modern, world and post-independence history; geography; Indian society.

Art & Culture

Topper handwritten notes

Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ANCIENT to MODERN TIMES

#Topic 1: Architecture

= design & construction of buildings

#Classification of Architecture

Architecture classification tree — Ancient / Medieval / Modern

Ancient
- Harappan
- Mauryan
- Post-Mauryan
- Gupta Age
- South Indian
Medieval
- Delhi Sultanate
- Mughal Art
Modern
- Indo-Gothic
- Neo Roman

Monuments Intro — Monuments are grappling hooks that bind one culture to another, one era to another

#A1. Harappan

Harappa + Mohenjodaro
Urban civic planning — roads, houses, drainage
- Rectangular grid pattern
- 3 types of structures:
  - Dwelling house
  - Public buildings
  - Public bath
- Baked/burnt bricks
- No large monuments
- No temples / palaces
- Egypt + Mesopotamia connections [trade] ✓
- Granaries
- Wells + ventilation
- Loosely covered drains for cleaning & maintenance
- Cesspits
- Emphasis on hygiene (public + private)

#Harappan Citadel Diagram

Harappan citadel and lower city cross-section sketch

Diagram shows: citadel (elevated mound, upper section) + lower city (ground level, broader base)

#Seals

Pictographic
Bi-directional writing
No cow
Both sides — commercial + communicative [nature]
Discovered in Mesopotamia → trade
Used as amulets
Scientific purpose
Math images = educational use
eg: Pashupati seal, Unicorn seal

#Bronze Sculpture

Lost-wax technique [cire perdue / Pinching method for Terracotta]

#Pottery

Plain and Painted (Red & Black)
- Trees, birds, animals, geometry motifs
- Few handmade; mostly wheel-made
- Polychrome too (rare)
- Purpose:
  - HH [Household] storage
  - Decorative
  - Perforated (straining liquor)

"Giant strides in field of arch + sculpture. From scientific city plan to artistic figures. IVC has left behind a legacy of skill & craftsmanship."

#Best-Known Works (Harappan)

Great Bath
Pashupati Seal
Dancing Girl
Mother Goddess
Bearded Priest
Male torso

#A2. Mauryan Art

Mauryan Art classification — Court Art / Popular Art

Court Art
- Palaces
- Pillars
- Stupas
Popular Art
- Caves
- Pottery
- Sculptures

#Palaces

At Kumrahar [Pataliputra]
To reflect splendour
Wood
Massive
Multi-storeyed
Decorated

#Ashokan Pillars

Ashokan pillar diagram — Final Animal, Abacus, Capital, Monolithic shaft

Symbol of victory + "Propag" [propagation] of sermons
40 ft high
Sandstone
4 parts:
1. Final Animal (top)
2. Abacus (circular or square)
3. Capital (lotus bell)
4. Monolithic shaft
Iranian [Achaemenid] influence
Polish / lustre
eg: Sarnath, Nandgarh
Abacus + animal = Nat'l [National] Emblem
Independently erected

#Stupas

Stupa diagram — Chattra, Yasti, Harmika, Dome, Torana, Passage, Stone fence, Double stairway

Burial mounds from Vedic age
To keep relics & ashes
Climax with Ashoka
84,000 in number
Popularised by Buddhists
Core = unburnt bricks; outer = burnt + plaster
eg: Sanchi Stupa
Parts of Stupa (from diagram):
- Chattra + Yasti (umbrella + pole)
- Harmika (square railing on top)
- Dome (anda / solid mound)
- Passage (pradakshina path around dome)
- Torana (gateway)
- Stone fence (vedika)
- Double stairway

#Popular Art — Caves

As Viharas [monasteries] for monks
Ajivika + Buddhist monks
Highly polished
Decorative

#Popular Art — Sculptures

Idea of stupas
Yaksha & Yakshi (all 3 religions)

#Popular Art — Pottery

Northern Black Polished Ware
Highly lustrous
Luxury items
Highest level ★

#A3. Post-Mauryan

North → Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas, Shakas (rig [Rigveda influence])
South → Satavahanas, Ikshavakus, Abhiras, Vakatakas (Shiva)
Stupas + caves continued
Sculpture = Climax
Caves = Chaityas (new) + Viharas (old)
- eg: Udayagiri & Khandagiri [Odisha], Malika, Ranigumpha
Stupas — larger; more decorated
- Stone > wood, brick
- Torana [by Shungas]
- Intricate carvings
- Hellenistic influence
- eg: Bharhut (MP), Torana at Sanchi
Sculpture = Gandhara, Mathura, Amaravati

#Gandhara vs. Mathura vs. Amaravati — Comparison Table

Gandhara, Mathura, Amaravati sculpture comparison table

Feature	Gandhara	Mathura	Amaravati
Influence	Greco-Indian — Greek + Roman + Local	Use of symbolism [highlighted]	Narrative art + Tribhanga
Origin	Indigenous (Greek-Roman-local)	Indigenous	Indigenous
Material	Blue-grey sandstone + mud & stucco	Red sandstone	White marble
Religion	Buddhist	All 3 religions	Buddhist
Patron	Kushana	Kushana	Satavahana
Location	NWFP — modern-day Kandahar	Mathura, Sonkh, Kankaultia (gains)	Krishna-Godavari lower valley
Style	Spiritual; wavy hair; few ornaments; yoga; half-cloud eyes; protuberance	Delighted mood; muscularity; tight dress; shaved face & head; padmasana; protuberance	Less emphasis on Bnd. [stories of] Buddha; stories of Jataka; human + animal form

#A4. Gupta Age

4th century AD
Golden period
Climax = Temple arch [temple architecture]
Buddhist + Jain Art
★ Mural paintings in caves — NEW ★
eg: Ajanta, Ellora, Bagh (A type [Ajanta]), Junagarh (B), Nasik (B), Udayagiri & MP (H), Elephanta (Ellora type) — (H + B)

#Cave Classification (Gupta)

N = [Vishnu]
C = [Brahma / Vishnu]
S = [Shiva]

Gupta age N/C/S cave classification diagram

#Caves — Ajanta vs. Ellora

#Ajanta

Rock cut
MH [Maharashtra] — Sahyadri
29 caves
Vakataka-Harishena [patronage]
Fresco painting
Naturalism
Absence of blue colour
Buddhism
Chinese A/C [accounts] — Fa-hien, Hiuen Tsang

#Ellora

MH — Sahyadri
34 caves
- 1–12: Buddhist (cave 18–28 [corrected])
- 13–29: Hindu [Shaiva]
- 29–34: Jain
All 3 Religions
Newer than Ajanta
Diversity in themes
Cave 16: Kailash Temple (Lord Shiva) — Rashtrakuta-Krishnaraja
Cave 10: Vishwakarma Cave
- Buddha in Vyakhyana Mudra
- Chatiya
- Bodhi tree

#Stupas (Gupta)

Decline
But Dhamek Stupa, Sarnath = ★

#Sculpture (Gupta)

"Pern" [perhaps "perfect"] + cream colour + metal use + finely dressed + decorated halo

#Temple Architecture

#Evolution — Stages

S1 = flat roof + square + shallow pillars + low
S2 = high-raised + 2-storeyed + passageway (covered)
S3 = Shikhara + Gayavan [Gayan] style + crucified ground
S4 = same [as S3]
S5 = circular temples + same features

(Lalalala — mnemonic)

#Temple Style Classification Tree

Nagara (North)
Dravida (South)
Nayaka
Vesara (N+D hybrid)
Hoysala
Vijayanagara
Pala & Sena

#Nagara vs. Dravida — Detailed Comparison

#Nagara Style

North
Panchayatan style ←
Assembly halls
Images of river goddesses
NO water tanks
Upraised
Pillared approach
Shikhara (-)
- Latina — Rekha Prasad; square base
- Phamshana — broader base, short ht., steep slope
- Valabhi — rectangular base
Amalaka + Kalash
Rathas — 3, 5, 7, 9
Covered pradakshina path
No elaborate boundary walls / gateways
3 Sub-schools:
1. Odisha — water tank
2. Khajuraho — antarala
3. Solanki — Surya Kund

#Dravida Style

South
High boundary walls
Gateway k/a Gopuram
Panchayatan
Vimana (-)
- Kalash of N = Shikhara of D
- Only one Vimana (not on subsidiary shrines, unlike Nagara)
Assembly halls
- Antarala (connector)
Dwarpal — Mithun, Yaksha
WATER TANK
Continuation of Pallava architecture
Sub-schools:
1. Nayaka — Islamic influence; climax of Gopuram; Prakaram, huge corridor
2. Vesara = N + D; curved Shikhara; carvings; square Vimana
3. Vijayanagara — Indo-Islamic; mandap on all sides; monolithic pillars; secular buildings
4. Hoysala — star / stellate [shape]

#Pala & Sena Style

B + H [Bengal + Hindu] influence
Curved sloping roof

#Basic Nagara Temple Diagram

Features labelled:
- Shikhara (triangular spire)
- Pillared approach (front porch)
- Sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha)
- Upraised platform (jagati)
- Ambulatory passage (pradakshina path)
- No water tank
- No boundary wall

#Basic Dravidian Temple Diagram

Basic Dravidian temple plan diagram — Garbhagriha, Antarala, Subsidiary shrines, Assembly Hall, Gopuram

Features labelled:
- Garbhagriha (sanctum with circle symbol)
- Antarala (vestibule/connector)
- Subsidiary shrines [1, 2] (flanking the main shrine)
- Assembly Hall [3, 4]
- Gopuram (monumental gateway)
- Water Tank
- Vimana
- Note: circle = Garbhagriha; rectangular compound = high boundary wall

#Medieval Art

New elements = calligraphy, ornamentation using jali work, etc.

#Indo-Islamic Architecture

Arch + dome
Arcade style > Trabeate style
Use of minaret
Mortar
No humans, animals
Spacious, massive breadth
Calligraphy
Arabesque method
Symmetry
Jali work → religious / cooling / decorative
Use of water
Charbagh style
Pietra dura aka Parchin Kari (S. Asia)
Foreshortening technique

#M1. Delhi Sultanate

#Imperial Style

Slave Dynasty

Remnant of Hindu structures
Added burial pillars [minarets]
eg: Qutub Minar [implied]

Khalji Style [highlighted]

Red sandstone + mortar
Arcades but not true dome

Tughlaq

Dark / grey sandstone
Batter [sloping walls]
Focus on strength, not decoration

Lodi

Back seat
Only tombs
Double domes
H+H [Hindu+Hindu?] influence
No decoration
Gardens

#Provincial Style

Bengal

Massive buildings
Bangla roof
Bricks + black marble

Malwa

Coloured stone
No minaret
[illegible — partial word] / Hindu adaptation
Era — Parhan school [?]
Baoli, Bakra

Jaunpur

Atala style
No minarets
Char [?]

Bijapur — Deccan style

Bulbous dome + arches

#Mughal Architecture

#Babur

Mosques + short rule → no development

#Humayun

1st time use of marble
1st garden tomb

#Sher Shah [highlighted]

Mosque + Fort
Transition from Lodi to Mughal style
Grand Trunk Road
Tomb at Sasaram

#Akbar — GOLDEN PERIOD [highlighted]

Bulb [bulbous] arch / (4-centred arch)
Red sandstone
1. Agra Fort (further developed by Shah Jahan)
1. Fatehpur Sikri (Ulmas + Pension) = "frozen moment"
- Employed Hindu workers, Hindu deco
- Climax = Jali work
- Started use of Kalaas [?]
- Built Govind Dev temple [in Vrindavan] + Humayun Tomb ★

#Jahangir

Back seat
More focus on paintings
Akbar's Tomb + own tomb
Moti Masjid, Lahore
Shalimar Bagh, Kashmir
White marble replaced sandstone [highlighted]

#Shah Jahan — CLIMAX of Mughal arch [highlighted]

Taj Mahal · Red Fort · Jama Masjid · Shalimar Bagh (Lahore) · Shahjahanabad
Peacock Throne

#Aurangzeb

Decline

#Indian Paintings

Since ancient times
Primitive rock paintings of Bhimbetka, Mirzapur & Panchmahi (Zoo Rock Shelter)
Painted pottery of IVC
Real beginning = Gupta Age

#Pre-Historic Paintings

Pre-historic painting classification tree — Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Chalcolithic

Upper Palaeolithic [Phase 1]

Clay minerals for colours
Animals, humans
Red, hunters, green, dancers

Mesolithic [Phase 2]

Use of red
Smaller
Group hunting

Chalcolithic [Phase 3]

Green & yellow
Battle scenes
Horse / elephant riding
Narsinghgarh, MP
Tanning skins
Paintings of musicals, geometry

1, 2, 3 + early historic, medieval period paintings = All found in Bhimbetka

Chalcolithic cave sites:
- Ghoshgar
- Kohabaur [?]
- Chitna Dongri [?]
- Oogat [?]

#Mural Paintings

On walls / solid structure
Follow themes — H / B / J [Hindu / Buddhist / Jain]
To adorn any mundane premise
eg: ancient theatre room in Jogimara cave
Unique because of size ★

#a) Ajanta [Mural Paintings]

100x 4–5c [century] of Mauryan empire
Cave 4–10: Shungas
Rest = Guptas
Cave 1–2 = most recent
Murals = Fresco painting
Tempera style [highlighted] & use of pigments
Pottery, human values + social fabric
Unique hairstyle
Chronology: Mauryas → Shungas → Guptas

#b) Ajanta Paintings — Details

Birds & animals with emotions
Jataka stories — common theme
Used vegetable & mineral dyes
Some important paintings:
- Tribhanga pose cave 1
- Dying Princess (16)
- Shivi Jataka
- Maari Poshaka Jataka

#b) Ellora Cave Paintings

In 5 main caves, mostly Kailash Temple
2 phases:
- Vaishnava (Vishnu, Lakshmi, Garuda) → (Antiquity style)
- Shaiva
- Carving of cave — centuries later
- eg: Lakshmi + Vishnu, Shiva + followers, Apsaras

#c) Bagh Cave [highlighted]

MP
Ajanta school — design + execution + decoration
More tightly modelled, stronger outline, more earthly & human
eg: Cave 4 — Rang Mahal & Jataka ★
Scanty & decayed
Depicts religious themes in light of contemporary lifestyle of people = secular

#d) Sittanavasal Cave — TN [Tamil Nadu] + Jains (Milavar Koli)

TN + Jains
Bagh + Ajanta type
Walls + ceilings + pillars
Samsara theme [the cycle of life]
Pallava period
Veg + mandyes [?]
Yellow, G, O, B, B, W [pigment colours]
Central element: pond with lotuses ★

#e) Sittanavasal — Additional detail

Central element: pond with lotuses ★

#f) Ravan Chhaya — Odisha + royal hunting lodge + Chola [?]

#g) Lepakshi ★

AP [Andhra Pradesh]
Virabhadra temple walls
Vijayanagar period
Religious — MB [Mahabharata], Ramayana, Vishnu
Absence of primary colours
Decline in quality
Outline with black

#h) Jogimara CP [Chhattisgarh]

Sargash [Prakrit/Sanskrit] + love story (Brahmi script) + red outline + rock-cut theatre + couples / elephant / fish

#i) Badami CP [Cave Paintings]

Lost original grandeur & charm
One of the earliest surviving Hindu paintings
Ajanta + Bagh [style]
Graceful human eyes
P of Chalukyan kings, Jain scenes, Shiva-Parvati etc.
Cave 3: 4-armed Brahma on his swan
- Ancient theatre = Jogimara caves, Chattisgarh
- Brahma on swan = Badami cave painting

#Miniature Paintings

Miniature painting classification tree — Early M, Transition, Delhi Sultanate, Mughal

Not > 25 inch
Not > ¼ of original size
Stout people + slim + bulging eyes + pointed nose + brown skin + long black hair + traditional clothes & turban

#Classification of Miniature Paintings

Early M [Early Miniature]

Pala — palm leaf, subject: Buddhist
Apabhramsa — small, few lines, circular paper, palm + paper, murals + small symbolic colours
- eg: [illegible]

Transition

Delhi Sultanate

Illustrated manuscripts
ID + Persian [influence]
Lodi Khiladas [?]
Predecessor to Mughal Rajput Deccan

Mughal

Persian-influenced rules, etc.
Only MF [miniature features]
Hunting scenes + Nature
Accuracy
Foreshortening technique
Brilliant colours

#Mughal Paintings

Babur — no time + my family tree
Humayun — interested but power struggle
Akbar
- dept = Tasvir Khana + considered painting as a means of study & amusement + gave awards + INDIAN INFLUENCE
- started + 3D figures + finish + calligraphy + TRANSFORMATION → popular to court life
- e.g. Tutinama, Hamzanama, Collision of Gods, Murali-Suheli
Jahangir — ZENITH + naturalist + flora/fauna + PORTRAIT painting + DECORATED MARGINS + artist himself + private workshop + none surviving → e.g. Zebra / Turkey / Cox
Shah Jahan — ARTIFICIAL elements + low liveliness + EUROPEAN influence + pencil use + gold & silver + brighter
Aurangzeb — Rehne hi do! :)

#Regional & Folk Paintings (from Book)

Imp!

Madhubani — Bihar + GI tag
- Pattachitra — Odisha
- Patua — WB + religious / political / social themes
Kalighat — WB + subaltern elements + social issues (religious) (1st ever)
Paitkar — Jharkhand + post death life shown
Kalamkari — AP + Hindu mythos
Warli — MH + BW [black & white] / D [dot] primarily
Thangka — HP, Ladakh, Sikkim, MNP [Manipur]
Manjusha — Bihar + aka snake painting
Phad — Raj.
Cheriyal — Telangana + GI tag
Pithora — Guj + MP + HORSES
Saura — Odisha + similar to Warli + tribal deity

#Indian Dance Forms

Sangeet Natak Academy = 8 classical dances
M/o [Ministry of] Culture = 9 dances (8 + Chhau)

#Foundational Concepts (Natyashastra)

Bharata's Natya Shastra
Community dancing scenes at Bhimbetka
Bronze Dancing Girl
Lasaya & Tandava
Nritta (dance), Natya (drama), Nritya (emotion)
9 Rasa
108 fundamental Mudras

#Bharatnatyam vs Kuchipudi — Comparison Table

Bharatnatyam vs Kuchipudi — hand-drawn comparison table showing key differences:

Feature	Bharatnatyam	Kuchipudi
State	Tamil Nadu	Andhra Pradesh
Movement style	Elegance, grace, softness, clarity & sculptured poses	Bulk, flat-footed, dazzling, more rounded poses
Elements	Fire dance	Earthly elements
Dress	3 fans on a pleated saxi [saree], diff. lengths	Single fan, longer than the lengthiest of [Bharatnatyam]
Leg movement	No lip [lower body] movement	Lip movement
Notable artists	Rukmani Devi Arundale, Mallika Sarabhai	Rafa & Radha Reddy, Sonal Mansingh
Performance	Solo performance	Team performance

Similarities

Both are classical dances from South India
Have an ancient history & revived in modern times
Carnatic music
Mix of Tandava & Lasya
Orchestra — violinist, flutist, mridangam player, vocalist

#Classical Dance vs Folk Dance

Classical vs Folk dance comparison table

Hand-drawn two-column table contrasting Classical and Folk dance:

Classical	Folk
Highly stylized, intended for performance & usually developed over a long period of time	A recent movement that values traditional dances for common people
More demanding, strict & technical	Free and fun, usually has a storyline
Performed by professionals or trained dancers based on study	Based on traditions, not by professionals
All about energy, enthusiasm, power	Elegance, grace and composure
>300 [forms]	8 to no. [approximately]
e.g. Chhau, Kalbelia, Ghoomar	e.g. Kathak, Sattriya, Odissi

#Should Chhau Dance Be Declared a Classical Dance?

Chhau classical dance debate — Why/Why Not table

Hand-drawn Why / Why Not table:
Snake time [some time ago] = 4 CDs [classical dances]: Kathak, Manipuri, Kathakali, Bharatnatyam
No. has now doubled
Status given on basis of Shaastric (Natya Shastra) correlation?
CD [Classical Dance] status = funds + preservation + expansion

Why?	Why Not?
UNESCO Rep. List's part	More of a folk dance — Indian tribal martial dance
Chhau masks = GI tag	Lack of proper study & research
M/o Culture recognizes it	Unlike other CD, hardly any vocab exists
Long history
Decline should be arrested
Tribal empowerment
Covers the 3 aspects of Nritta, Nritya & Natya as well as Tandava & Lasya

#Indian Music

Hand-drawn tree diagram showing classification of Indian Music:
- Classical → Hindustani / Carnatic
- Folk
- Fusion of C+F [Classical + Folk] — Sugam Sangeet, Rabindra [Sangeet], Haveli [Sangeet], Gana [Sangeet]
- Modern music — Rock, Pop, Blue, Trance, Jazz, Psychedelic

#Hindustani vs Carnatic — Comparison Table

Hand-drawn two-column comparison table:

Feature	Hindustani	Carnatic
Influence	Arab, Persian and Afghan	Indigenous
Freedom	Scope for improvement + variations	No freedom to improvise
Sub-styles	Several SS [sub-styles] leading to emergence of Gharanas	Only 1 particular prescribed style
Instruments	As larpas [lampas] words [?]	More emphasis on vocal music
Ragas	6 major	72
Time	Adheres to time	No time
Major instruments	Tabla, Sitar, Sarangi, Santoor	Veena, Mridangam and Mandolin
India	North	South
Octave	— of Natural Notes	Traditional octave
Origin	Vedic period	Bhakti movement

Similarities between Hindustani & Carnatic

Historical roots = Natyashastra
Flute & violin
Basic elements of Swara, Raga, Tala
Association with religion
Central notion of melodic mode = Raga

Read about diff. music forms from Book.

#Steps Taken to Promote Classical Dances

Sangeet Natak Akademi — 1952
Grand dance festivals @ Khajuraho, Konark, Ellora
Established [PM/Government — Univ.] like Raja Man Singh Tomar Uni., Gwalior
Listing in UNESCO — Chhau in 2010
Odissi [included] in syllabus of IIT-Bhubaneshwar since 2015

Need? A National Cultural Policy.

#Laws & Provisions for Cultural Preservation

A29 — Protect interests of minorities
A49 — Protect monuments & places & objects of national value
A51A(f) — Value & preserve rich heritage of Indian culture

#Key Legislation

Indian Treasure Trove Act, 1878
Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904
Antiquities Export Control, 1947
Antiquities & Art Treasure Act, 1972

#Indian Theatre

Sittabera & Jogimara Caves — oldest amphi[theatre] in world

#Sanskrit Classical Theatre

Narrative art form
Music + dance + acting
Ashvaghoesha, Bhasa, Shudraka, Kalidas, Harshvardhana
10 types of plays:
- Happy endings (unlike Greek tragedies)
- Male protagonist
- Well defined opening, plot, pause, end
- Ritualistic progression
- 2 storeyed stage
- Sutradhar
- Curtains (yes)
- Nayas (no)
- Nayat, Nayika, Vidushaka

#Reasons for Decline of Sanskrit Theatre

The dramatists began to diverge towards poetry thus lyrical writing became popular over drama
Rigid director = restricted creativity
Decreasing popularity among masses
Confined to religious sphere — Brahmin domination
Advent of Mughals → music & dance became sophisticated
Urban oriented & sophisticated

#Koodiyattam

Oldest + 8kt + Kerala + adheres to Natya Shastra's rules
Chakiar & Nambiar caste + Prakit [Prakrit] & Malayalam
Mudham [Precap — Precap/Prelude] + commentaries on social, philosophical & political
Margi Madhu Chakya (person), urban oriented

#Bhakti & Sufi Movement

#Sufi Movement

Sufism = Mystical arm of Islam
Self realisation, tolerance, righteousness, universal love for all
Sufi = garments of wool by ascetics
Safa = purity
Tiny materialism of caliphate = people turned to ascetism → rise of Sufis
Intuitive knowledge > inherited sciences
Dhawq = direct tasting of experience
Pir-Murshid concept / Guru-Shishya
Ultimate goal = union with God
Love of God = love of humanity; service to humanity = service of God
Spirit of tolerance
Fana, Zikr, Tauba, Insan-e-Kamil (perfect man), Wahadatul Wazudi, Sama
Rejected ritual
No strict ascetism
Borrowed from Hinduism, Christianity, Hinduism, etc.
Dialectic monism = Vedantic philosophy
Essential unity of all religions + equality of all humans
Life of voluntary poverty

Stages of Sufism

Sufi stages diagram — Khanqah, Tariqa, Tarifa

Hand-drawn stages diagram with bracketed flow [Khanqah > Tariqa > Tarifa]:
- S1 Khanqah — 10th c. = GOLDEN MYSTICISM
- S2 Tariqa — 11–14th c. = Instituted Sufism + attaching of traditions & symbols
- S3 Tarifa — 15th c. onwards = became a popular movement

Sufi Orders

Hand-drawn two-column table of Sufi Orders:
Bodily [but] purif[ication] of hearts
Meditative exercises
Hierarchies in Sufi Khanqah too
Objectives:
- Wahadat al Wajud (Oneness of Existence)
- Wahadat ul Shuhud (Unity of appearance)

Be-shara	Ba-shara
Don't believe in Sharia	Rule of Islam (Sharia)
aka Mast Kalandars, Malang	12 silsilahs
Wandering saints	Chishti, Suhrawardi, Firdausi, Qadiriya, etc.
No written A/c [accounts]
Harsh asceticism

Importance of Sufi Movement

Received Inam/Inam & passed [title/land] to Sheikhus; descendants → economic base to move up the social ladder
Spiritual authority over the world + protect sovereignty by protecting future kingship
Vernacular language got popularised & enriched
Economic, socio-political effects on masses
Won hearts & allegiance more than Ulemas
Simple living, high thinking
Promoted religious brotherhood & equality

#Bhakti Movement

Silent Revolution
A galaxy of socio-religious reformers
Medieval age
Ritualistic + caste ridden Hinduism → rise of Bhakti saints (Buddhism & Jainism preached strict austerity + lack of patronage)
Egalitarian + easy worship
To satisfy emotional / spiritual needs
Originated in South India, esp. TN [Tamil Nadu] by 7–12th c.; Northern belt by 15th c.
Spoke on vernaculars
Presence of priest not req[uired]
Bhakti from Bhaj = share, participate & belong to
Gita → Bhakti = attain salvation
Sutras also mention it
Intense love & devotion to God
Universalism
Repeat name of God again & again
Rejection of rituals
No caste discrimination
Allowed both men & women
Common kitchen
Idea of Personal God
Guru-Shishya concept
Brotherhood + equality

2 Schools of Bhakti

Hand-drawn two-box diagram showing two schools of Bhakti:

Nirguna	Saguna
Acquire knowledge	Incarnations — Rama, Krishna
Rejected scriptures	Idol worship (yes)
Idol worship (no)	Attributes, form, quality
Kabir, Guru Nanak, Dadu Dayal	Accept authority of Vedas
No attributes	Guru needed
	Ramanuja, Ramananda, Chaitanya

#Bhakti Movement in South India

Bhakti Movement South India — Alvars, Nayanmars, Lingayats 3-column table

Hand-drawn 3-column classification table:

Alvars	Nayanmars	Lingayats
"Those immersed in God"	From various backgrounds	Shaivites
Vaishnavites	Shaivite	12th c. AD
12 [saints]	63 [saints]	Karnataka
Divya Prabandha	Tevaram aka Dravida Veda	Kalachuri dynasty
Divya Desham	Thirumarai	Rejects caste
Andal: female saint (only) → Meera of South		By Basavanna
		Egalitarian
		[more text cut at edge]
		Greater ind[ependence] freedom

Contributions of Bhakti Movement

Religious, social, cultural reforms
Against caste & gender discrimination
Universal brotherhood + equality
Brought them [Hinduism & Islam] closer
Purity of thought & action
Vernaculars
Appealed rituals
Personal God

Key Saints — Notable Connections

Eknathara Mont — Shankaradeva, Assam
Thirumarai — Nayanar hymn collection (Shiva)
Ramananda — bridge between NE [North] & South
Surdas was a disciple of Vallabhacharya
Dadu Dayal was a follower of Kabir → contemporary of Akbar
Tukaram — Abhanga poetry, contemporary of Shivaji
Bal Gangadhar Tilak was a follower of Ramdas
Navargin = unique combo of Vedanta & Sufism = Eknath

#Art & Culture — Broader Themes

#Reasons for India's Cultural Diversity

Cultural contacts — Negroids, Mongoloids, Iranians, Greeks, Arabs, Turks, Europeans
Difference in physical factors → diffuse in food, dress, houses, economic activity
Secular outlook allows religious pluralism
Universalism — peace & harmony

#How Golden was the Golden Age?

Serfdom appeared
Women became an item of property
Rigid caste distinct[ions]
Law & justice favoured higher castes
Fa-Hein [Fa-Xian] — plight of Chandalas
Change & continuity from any period shown through:
- Socio-cultural
- Religious
- Economic
- Political

#Role of Temple as an Institution

Religious — devotion to God, rituals
Cultural — Tamil poets, literature, music, dance forms developed, paintings etc.
Economic — gave employment to people, be a focal point of exchange of goods, a rural bank
Political — location of village assemblies
Social — education to boys
But also 'devdasi system' (negative) → high caste domination

#Nalanda vs Taxila — Comparison

Feature	Nalanda	Taxila
Structure	Formal unit in modern sense of the world	Had off places [off-campus]; functioned under more informal cond. [conditions] (Guru shishya)
Classrooms	Had all infra — multiple classrooms, library, accommodation, etc.	No lecture halls, no residential quarters
Patronage	More structured; patronized by Gupta dynasty, Harsha, Pala	No degrees were awarded
Subjects	Maths / Science / Astronomy	No centralised system of schooling or syllabus
Other		Autonomous schools run by teachers
Note		Taxila later became a trade hub

#What Makes Indian Culture Unique?

Assimilative — Turks to Mughals etc. (Sarva Dharma Sambhava)
Change & continuity — Vedic period to modern times
Resilient — Indianness still remains
Inherently diverse — 780 languages, birthplace of 3 religions, countless cultural traditions
Inclusive — Sarva Bhavantu Sukhinah
Blend of spiritualism & materialism
Peaceful co-existence
Wholesome, youthful & delicate
Blend of symbolism & reality

#Sanskrit Literature

Religious text — Manusmriti, Dharmashastra
Rules & grammar — Panini's Ashtadhyayi
Drama — Kalidas, Malavikagnimitra
Poetry — Harisena (Samudragupta), Meghduta (Kalidas)
Scientific text — Charak Samhita (medicine); Panch Siddhantika (math/astronomy)

#Gandhi's Swaraj: A Multidimensional Concept

Hand-drawn mind-map with 'Swaraj' at centre, 5 radiating dimensions:
- Individual — self control
- Cultural — as our identity, Indian values
- Social — ending untouchability, communal violence
- Economic — produced by masses, cottage industries
- Political — Democratic Decentralisation

#Indo-Saracenic Architecture

Features — amalgamation of British & Indian style
Grand scale — bulbous domes, kiosks, minarets (chajjas etc.)
Adapt modern arch[itecture] to Indian climatic & aesthetic req[uirements]
Pan-Indian (arch[itectural] unit?)

#A Shrewd Imperial Move

An attempt to claim legitimacy after 1857
To project Britishers as non-foreign rulers
To suggest inter mingling of cultures
Surpass Mughal architectural glory
Needs served were British

#Neolithic Age as a Revolution

Domestication of plants (Agri — Chirand, UP)
D — Animals; Dog
Higher pop[ulation] density due to 1.
New tools — axes, celts, etc.
Sedentary lifestyle
1st use of pottery
Cultural progress

#Vesara Style (Temple Architecture)

KN [Karnataka] region — under patronage of Chalukyas
Found mainly in Deccan & Central India — as Nagara in North, Dravida in South

Diagram shows: pyramidal vimana, aqua garbhagriha, gopuram, water tank walls — may or may not be present

#How it is different from both (Nagara & Dravida)?

Height of these temples was reduced
Miniature vimana, pyramidal towers
Water tank & compound walls may or may not be present
Indigenous quality in ornamentation
Unique entrances — two or more entrances

eg. Badami temple, Durga temple, Virupaksha Temple (Pattadakal)
Star / stellar plan eg. temple @ Halebid, Belur
Zig-zag walls & stairs under Hoysalas

#IVC [Indus Valley Civilization] Has Different from Other Civilisations of the Time

Spread (geographical)
Monuments & structures — Meso[potamia] ✗, Harappa ✓
Burnt bricks in H[arappa], lesser extent to M[esopotamia], unknown in E[gypt]
Temple in M&E, H✗
Pol[itical] structure can't be decoded for H[arappa]
Script not yet deciphered for H[arappa]
Absence of wars
Uxorial society — role of religion

#Jainism & Buddhism

#Similarities

Inspired by Upanishads, against caste system
No rituals, nirvana, denial of Vedas, moral & ascetic life
✦ fold path of a disciple — unlike that of Jainism

#Differences

Mahavira: ahimsa, existence of soul, conduct, caste system, language of texts, royal support & patronage, propagation abroad
Buddha: [implied opposites on each of above]

#Advancements in Science & Technology

#1. Maths — Sulvanitra by Baudhyana & Pythagoras [theorem]

Zero in Brahmagupta's works — Lilawati
Decimal system
Sulbanitra by Baudhyana → Pythagorean theorem

#2. Astronomy — Khagol → Heliocentric theory

Aryabhata — Ramagupta b/w Ch[apter] I as Kumaragupta
Panch Siddhantika (Varahmihira)
"Naga" — nowhere else; Bud conflict — Gujrara Pratihara & Rashtrakutas both claim ruling over all of Karnataka

#3. Engg [Engineering]

IVC — planned cities, underground drainage
Hydraulic engg — check dams at Dholavira
Pandya / Chera period — well & tanks
Chola King Karikal built Grand Anicut across Kaveri river to divert water for Ch[ola] I + Kichhari = coin to commemorate massage [passage] + irrigation

#4. Water Management

Well & tanks in Chera period

#5. Metallurgy

Iron pillar of Delhi
Sword making (Wootz steel)

#Inscriptions

Eran Inscription — Sati, famine — Mauryan / Shunga era plates
Uttameru — LSG of Cholas
Hayag Prashasti — Samudragupta
Ashokan Inscriptions — dhamma → Suvarnata → Ajinka [Ajanta?]

#Coins

Roman coins — int[ernational] trade
Kusharo — flourishing trade
Harsha — ↓ in trade
Naga — nowhere else
"gana" on coins of Yaudheyа = non monarchical
Ch[ola] I + Kichhari = coin to commemorate massage [passage]
Ashtumedha on Kumaragupta coins
Samudragupta — Veena playing
Sat vahana — potin, no gold, gods on coins

#Physics — Vaisheshika — atoms, 5 elements (philosophy)

#Medicine & Surgery

Charata, Sushruta, Ayurveda
Dhanwantri — god of medicine

#1. Caste System

Megasthenes — Mauryan empire had 7 castes / class
Al Biruni → Mughal period [Tugra]

#2. Religion

Fa hein — Gangetic plains — land of Brahminism
Hiuen Tsang — Buddhism during Harsha

#3. Food

Peasant — Mughal diet
Traveller / Hn Kings followed non-veg diet

#4. Dress

Tavernier — dresses of light stuff
Bernier — shawls

#5. Men

Maharaimi festival of VN — elaborate dresses & headgear

#6. Women — Francois Bernier was in labour crucial in both agri & non-agri

#7. Lower caste — Chandalas

#Economic Life

#Agri [Agriculture]

Meg[asthenes] — primary source during Mauryans
Bartoса — details about rice cultivation in Malabar

#Industry

Bernier — Karkhanas of Mughals (BK)
Manucci — saltpetre prod[uction] (MS)
Barboa — shipbuilding (BA)

#Trade & Commerce

Fahein — looted on routes

#Transport & Communication

Sarai (rest houses)
Peter Mundy — a/c diff types of boats

#Science & Technology (continued)

#1. Sulvanitra by Baudhyana — earliest book on maths

→ Pythagorean Theorem

#2. Khagol was famous astronomical lab in Nalanda where Aryabhata studied

#3. Ganit Sara Sangraha — by Mahaviracharya

1st textbook on arithmetic (~9 AD)
→ LCM

#4. Lilavati (maths book) translated into Persian by Faizl (Akbar)

- Bhaskar's Bijaganita

#5. Takshila & Varanasi — centres for med[ical] learning

#6. Before Charaka — Atreya & Agnivesa had already dealt with Ayurveda

#7. Unani system came to India from Greece

#8. Panch Siddhantika (astrology) | Brihat Samhita (astronomy etc.) — Varahmihira

#9. Dhanwantri — god of medicine

Katha sarit sagar — Somadeva
Ayanka = compilation of ritualistic info on birth & death cycles + complexity of souls
Akbar made Maths a part of edu[cation] system

#10. Sant tradition — Bhakti

Dnyaneshwar (1275–1296)
Namdev (1270–1350) — Varkari
Eknath (1533–1599) — Vitthoba = Vishnu
Tukaram (1598–1650)
Vishuddhimagga — Buddhist text by Buddhaghоsha

#Calendars

#Vikram Samvat

BCE 57 sab13 [58 BC]
Luni-solar (moon + sun)
12 months (~354 days)
35 yrs approx — if any little adjustment — through adhik maas (extra month)
11 days ahead of (S) [Saka]
Zoroastrian calendar → Era begins from (e)
- By Sutragonal Buddha
- Dupas arc — Nikul Kalpa sutra on ship building
- Copper arch — copper & stucco on ship building

#Saka Samvat

38 AD [78 CE]
Luni-solar
12m (~354 days)
Begins on 2nd March
365 days — Krung Shuichuan [Kang Shoujun?]
Nat calendar — I [Indian]

#Hijri Calendar

622 AD
dwar [lunar]
12m
354 days
A little like lunar — solar not adjusted
= 4 years ahead after every 33 years

#Gregorian

Solar year (last Jan)
365 days, 5 hrs — civil year

#Artiloca — By Mackintosh Christie

Believe in higher — not to Karman
Based on theory — historical evidence of past
Existence of soul → material given

#Goddess in Rig Veda

Usha — Prithvi
Veda — Pulitsa
Every deity = Shakti — snake

#Indian Philosophy Schools

#Sankhya

Oldest
Kapila Muni
Knowledge of all
Pursuit to flourish
Theory of liberation — democratization
& Avail

#Yoga

Patanjali
Pratyaksh — practical
Physical — practical age of yoga
Vama, Rajaguru, Patanjara, Bhoga, Parasara, Managara

#Purvа Mimansa

Jaimini
Performing Nevele — concerned with Rituals
Veda = eternal truth
History of fiction — can look back at future — demonstrations etc.

#Vedanta (Uttara Mimansa)

Shankaracharya
Brahma = maya
Karma = theory of self — percentage of self
Theory of Karma + Purushorama [?]

#Nyaya

Gautama
Logical thinking
Inference, analogy
Adversarial thinking — analysed the described universe

#Vaisheshika

Kanada
Physicality of universe
Smallest elements → Atoms
Shloka elements — attempts to combine
Believes to — karma no

#Buddhism

= means of salvation

#Charvaka

Brihaspati — means of salvation
Materialistic view — eka lakanyukta — no God, no Brahma, no ether
4 elements — no ether

#Jain

= 4 fundamental elements
"Heterodox school of philosophy"

#Puppetry

Classification tree — String | Shadow | Glove | Rod | Eastern

#String (Rajasthan — no legs)

Kathputli (RJ) — no legs
Kundhei (Odisha) — more joints, flexible
Gombeyatta (KN) — Yakshagana → puppeteers
Bommalattam (TN) — Rod + string — largest, heaviest

#Shadow

Togalu Gombeyatta (KN)
Ravanchaya (Odisha) — deer skin; no joints; non-human puppets as well
Tholu Bommalata (AP) — mythо themes

#Glove

Pavakoothu (Kerala) — Kathakali; Ramayana & Mb[Mahabharata]

#Rod

Eastern

Yampuri (Bihar) — no joints, single piece of wood
Рabbei Natch (Bengal–Odisha–Assam) — Jatra; 3 joints; musical

In Odisha — a popular form of street theatre k/a Sahi gatra is prevalent
- Medaram Jatra — Telangana
Theatres in N — emphasis on music + dance (= S)

#Yakshagana

Oldest — AP & KN
Vijaynagar empire
Jakkula varu community
Dance drama — single artist
Variants:
- Taista (MH)
- Guarasi (GJ)
- Gandharva Gana (Nepal)
Tal Maddale is its predecessor ✦ ✦

#Martial Arts

Name	Place	Remarks
Kalaripayattu	Kerala	One of the oldest; NOT accompanied by songs/drums; footwork & imp; women too; armed & unarmed variant
Silambam	Tamil Nadu	Mention in Tamil lit; famous in Malaysia too; diff kinds of staves techniques
Thang Ta & Sarit Sarak	Manipur	Armed — TT; Unarmed — SS; Banned by British; together k/a Huyen Langlon; 17th c
Cheibi Gad-ga	Manipur	By Rajputs
Pari Khanda	Bihar	Used in Chhaau dance
Thoda	HP	Baisakhi; archery skills; Mahabharata times
Mardani Khel	Maharashtra	Use of Pata & Vita
Inbuan Wrestling	Mizoram	—
Kuttu Varisai	Tamil Nadu	Sangam lit; UNARMED; S & Malaysia too; k/a unarmed component of Silambam
Musti Yudha	Varanasi	Resemble boxing; phy[sical], mental, spiritual; 4 categories — after med

Name	Place
Palka Akhodha	Odisha
Sqay	Kashmir
Kathi Samu	AP
Malla Yuddha	S. India
Malla Khamb	MH
Insu Knaur	Mizoram
Kiripl Saldu	Nicobar
Varuma Ati	TN

Banned during British rule — Kalaripayattu, Silambam, Thang Ta

#Festivals

Festival	Place
Losoong	Sikkim
Hornbill	Nagaland
Kharchi Puja	Tripura
Wangala	Meghalaya (Garo)
Rang Chingba	Manipur
Sekrenyi	Nagaland (Angami tribe)
Dree	ARP (Apatani tribe)
Sarhul	Jharkhand

(~34+) majority of lang[uages] spoken in India belong to Indo-Iranian group
Ski dialect belongs to Dravidian (Brahui too)

#Languages

Language family diagram — Sino-Tibetan, Austric, Dravidian, Indo-Iranian

Diagram shows overlapping triangles: Sino Tibetan, Austric, Dravidian

#ART & CULTURE DIAGRAMS

#Harappan Architecture

Sketch labels: walls, perpendicular streets, river canal, assembly hall, public booth, granary

Harappan 'chatri/vaulted' structure sketch

Sketch of a dome structure labelled: chatri / vaulted brick — Toran

#Harappan Seals

Seals shown: swastika, circular concentric rings, cross/diamond, and two more geometric seals

#Harappan Pottery

Vessel shapes shown: jar, pot with narrow neck, small round pot, flat dish

#Mauryan Pillar

Labels: Animal (capital), Abacus, Capital, Monolithic shaft

#Stupa

Labels: Chattel [Chatri], Yasti, Harmika, Dome/Anda, Stairway, East Torana, West Torana

#Mughal / Indo-Islamic Architectural Motifs

Arabesque Design

Flowing floral/vine scroll pattern

Jaali Work

Latticed stone/marble screen pattern

Charbagh Style

Charbagh garden layout — 4 quadrant plan

4-quadrant garden plan with central structure

Double Dome

Labels: Double Dome (inner dome + outer shell), minaret

#Folk/Tribal Art Forms

Warli Painting

Dancing human figure inside rectangular border

Kolam / Rangoli

Star-shaped geometric floor pattern

#Musical Instruments

Tabla

Pair of drums: large (bayan) + small (dayan) + small round drum below

#Dance Forms

Manipuri Dance

Female dancer in cylindrical skirt (potloi) and veil

#Puppetry Illustration

Kathputli Rajasthan puppetry — figure with red string

String puppet: ornate costume, red string, Rajasthan style

#Indus Script Symbols

Row of Indus script symbols including: circle with cross, T-shape, fish, cross, zigzag, and additional glyphs

#Ahimsa Symbol (Jain)

Open palm with wheel (chakra) in centre = Ahimsa

#Nangla Festival / Folk Performer

Nangla festival figure — performer with drum/flute

Performer in headgear holding bamboo flute/drum — NE [paga / Northeast]

#Bharat Ratna Award

Peepal leaf shape with sun design — India's highest civilian award

#Satavahana Coin — Ujjain Symbol

Circular coin with Ujjain symbol (4 circles/arcs in cross pattern)

#Buddhism Spread Map

India outline; central point circled at Pataliputra
Arrows radiating to: Gandhara, Kashmir, Pataliputra (hub), Aparanta (west coast), Vana Vasi, Lanka (Sri Lanka), Suvarna Bhumi (Southeast Asia)

#Temple Architecture Diagrams

#Nagara Style

Labels: Amalaka (top disc), Shikhara (tower), Garbhagriha (sanctum), Mandapa (hall), Pillared approach, Upraised platform (plinth)

#Dravida Style

Labels: Gopuram (gateway tower), Water Tank, Mandapa (hall), Shikhara (over sanctum — smaller/stepped), Vimana (tower), Garbhagriha (sanctum)

Modern History

Topper handwritten notes

#Revolt of 1857

#Causes

Economic = revenue settlement, heavy taxes, usurious rates; artisans & no modern industries; forfeiture of land rights
- pressure on agriculture & lop-sided [exploitative] debt
  - (Lapse of [Doctrine of] Lapse, MI Moraji, Doctrine of EIC)
Political = Subsidiary Alliance, Doctrine of Lapse, Doctrine of EIC [East India Company]
Administrative = corruption, foreign & alien character
Socio-religious = racial overtones, reforms, taxes on religious places, role of missionaries
Serial events = Afghan Wars (1838–42), Punjab Wars, Crimean War
- psychological repercussions
Discontent among sepoys = service cond[itions], conflict with religious beliefs, loss of caste, no foreign service allowance, annexation of Awadh, racial discrimination

Sepoy = peasant in uniform

The army voiced grievances other than its own, & the most "spread beyond the army"
Immediate cause = greased cartridge

#Why the Revolt Failed?

No All India pan — EWers [East-Westerners/Europeans] were unaffected; Zamindars, educated Indians, rulers [were not supportive]
All classes didn't join — zamindars, educated Indians, rulers
Few arms & equipment; uncoordinated & poorly organized [Zakon was already dead]
No unified ideology

#Nature of Revolt

Hindu–Muslim unity
Revolutionary war = Mughal leadership act
Popular revolt — artisans + peasantry + artisans + shopkeepers
- day labourers + zamindars + religious minds

priests & civil servants

Sepoy mutiny — just one of causes to X
Not all India
Planned war of India — vs Savarkar (1857)
Began as religion fight but ended as a war of India — S.N. Sen
Soldier peasant vs feudalism = Marxist

"Far more than a mutiny, yet much less than a 1st war of India" — Stanley Wolpert

Moved by personal interests

#Consequences / Significance

GOI Act, 1858 — British Crown
Queen's proclamation
End of era of annexations & expansion
Reform of religion
Equal & impartial protection u/law
Army reorg[anisation] = Indians & Euro[peans], martial races, linked battalion scheme, artillery units defunct, high posts reserved for Euro[peans]
Indian Mutiny — better resistance, returned home

Conservative brand of nationalism — end of reforms era
More autocratic empire
Frustration in educated middle class → national[ism]
Policy of Divide & Rule
Systemic economic loot
Social based & suspicion tho [through]
Whiteman's burden
Shortcomings in co-rule
Brought out grievances of people

#Factors for Rise of SRRM

Impact of British Rule
Social cond[itions] → religious & social ills
- → oppressing position of women
- → caste problem
- → opp[osition] to West[ern] culture
New awareness — rational[ism], economic forces, edu[cation], Western ideas & culture
Middle class Intelligentsia
Intellectual criteria of rationalism, religious universalism, and humanism

SR [Social Reform] regen of India was only occasioned by colonial process/presence, not created by it.

Reference to past was used as an aid & an instrument. Neither a revival of past nor a break from it was envisaged.

#SRRM — Classification

Reformist branch:
- Brahmo Samaj
- Prarthana Samaj
- Aligarh Movement
Revivalist branch:
- Arya Samaj
- Deoband Movement

#Consequences of SRRM

Positive

God liberation [liberation in concept of God]
Worship was now a personal experience
Reason ↑
Corrupt elements (X) [eliminated]
Cultural roots to cling to
Sense of humiliation ↓
Secular, rational, modern outlook
Notion of pollution & purity (X) [challenged]
Modern[ism] > Western[ism]
Ended it's cultural & intellectual isolation from ROW [Rest of World]
National consciousness
Resist ideological hegemony

Negative

Abuse, persecution, fatwas, assassination attempts
Narrow social base
Encouraged mysticism in new garbs
Pseudo-scientific outlook
Compartment[alisation] of Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, Parsi
Discourage of high caste Hindus from low caste
Ancient √ ? — Thomism theory
Medieval √ ?
Communal consciousness along with nat[ionalism]

It was out of this struggle that a new society evolved on India

#Modern Nationalism

Reason: result of colonial policies + reaction to colonial policies

#Factors

Understanding of contradictions [in] Indian & colonial interests
Pol[itical] admin[istration] & eco[nomic] unif[ication]
Modern means of transport & communication
Western thought & edu[cation]
Role of press & literature — 169 newspapers till 1877
Rediscovery of India's past
SRRM
Rise of Middle class Intelligentsia
- "It was a minority of Indian society but a dynamic minority. It had a sense of unity of purpose & of hope"
Impact of contemporary movt on the world — Greece, Italy, Ireland etc.
Reactionary policies & racial arrogance of rulers (Lytton)
- → Vernacular Press Act in 1896 [1878]
- → Delhi Durbar of 1877 (famine)
- → VPA, 1878
- → Arms Act, 1878
- → Ilbert Bill, 1883–84

#Moderate Phase

Dadabhai Naoroji, DE Wacha, SN [Surendranath Banerjee], Pherozeshah Mehta
Liberal[s] & moderate politics
2 pronged methodology:

Creat[e] pub[lic] opinion:
- raise spirit
- educate &
- unite people
- → protest
Persuade Brit[ish] nat[ives] to introduce reforms to be done by Indians
Prayer & petition, last resort = constitutional agitation
Pol[itical] connections with India[n]s — Indian interests

"Pol[itical] Mendicancy", "Old Guard"

#Contribution [of Moderates]

Economic critique — drain theory
Constitutional reforms & propaganda on it
- → expansion of councils
- → reform of councils
Long term obj[ective] of Democratic Self-Govt
No taxation into rep[resentation] & majority of elected + control on budget
- Demands
Councils → venting popular grievances, exposing defects of policy, criticising govt, raising eco[nomic] issues
Generating anti-imperialist sentiments
Criticism of aggressive FP [Foreign Policy]
Call for ↑ in exp on welfare (health, edu, agri) + better treatment for Indian labourers abroad
Protection of civil rights — RT [Right to] speech, thought, asso[ciation] & free press
Wide nat[ional] awakening
Trained people on pol[itical] work & popularised modern India[n politics]

Limitations [of Moderates]

Narrow social base
No masses, no militant position
Ltd [Limited] scope of did
Leaders earn British goodwill — seditious Brahmin-disloyalty labels, factory of sedition etc.
Encouraged reactionary elements like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
Undue faith in Br[itish] intentions
Not did right to vote for all
No women

"The period from 1858 to 1905 was the seed time of Indian nationalism & the early nationalists sowed the seeds well and deep." — Bipin Chandra

#Era of Militant Nationalism

#Reasons for Growth

Recognition of the true nature of British rule
Economic miseries & famines & plagues
Growth of confidence & self respect
Growth of edu[cation] (rise in unemp[loyment])
Social influences (Japan)
Reaction to "Tng [Turning] West" : Role of thinkers — "India for Indians"
Dissatisfy with Mods [Moderates]
Reactionary policies of Curzon
Existence of militant school of thought — Lal, Bal, Pal; Aurobindo Ghosh, Chiplankar, Raj Narain Bose
Emergence of trained leadership

#Moderates vs Extremists

Aspect	Moderates	Extremists
1. Social base	Zamindars, upper middle class in towns	Educated middle & lower middle class in towns
2. Ideological inspiration	Western liberal thought & European history	Indian history, cultural heritage and Hindu traditional symbols
3. Believed in England's providential mission to India	Yes	Rejected the mission as an illusion
4. Pol[itical] connections with Britain	Were in India's social, pol[itical] & cultural interests	Would perpetuate British exploitation of India
5. Professed loyalty to the British Crown	Yes	The crown was unworthy of claiming Indian loyalty
6. Masses not yet ready for part[icipation] in politics	Yes	Immense faith in masses to participate & make sacrifices
7. Constitutional reforms & share for Indians in services = bld [bold]	Yes	bld = swaraj as panacea for Indian ills
8. Constitutional methods only	Yes	Extra-constitutional also

#Why Bengal was Important for British?

Richest province of Mughal empire
Vast area = control over Bengal meant more authority
Vital trading interests as >50% of Br[itish] imports from Asia consisted of goods from Bengal
Pol[itical] cond[itions] of the state offered oppo[rtunity] to Br[itish] to exploit the region for personal gains
Rest of India was not insulated from revolts & invasions like Bengal e.g: Jai, Maratha revolt, foreign invasions etc.
Highly populous region + fertile + indigo
Access to sea — port dev[eloped] by Br[itish]
Emerged as a hub of nationalism later
Control of mainland India as against French Pondicherry

#Workers' Contribution in INM [Indian National Movement]

"India broke her British fetters with a Western hammer"

Dual challenge [imperialist pol[itical] rule / economic exploit[ation]"]
Earliest attempts by philanthropists like Sasiplada Banerjee — Isolated, sporadic, localised
Soon nationalist leaders BC Pal, GS Aiyar, Lalaji etc wanted labour reforms
- → alignment of LM [Labour Movement] with INM
  - → was evident in SM [Surat Movement?] 1905
WWI + Gandhian pol + AITUC = broad-based INM with active mobil[isation] of workers
Radical & militant tinge due to communist influence
- e.g: General strike in Bombay textile mills (1928)

#Role of Vernacular Literature

Ideas of SRRM propagated to diff sections
- e.g: Samvad Kaumudi in Bengali
Broke monopoly of high castes over edu[cation]
Ventilation of sufferings & grievances of lower castes
- e.g: Gulamgiri [in] Marathi by Jyotiba Phule
Ideas of INC reached every nook & corner
Instilled sense of pride & belongingness
- e.g: Bankimchandra Chaterjee

#Local Government

#Why Done?

Financial difficulties due to over-© [overextension] made dec[entralisation] imperative
India's tring [growing] contact with Europe = need for civic amenities led
Nat[ional]ism was based on improved basic facilities
An instrument to check politicisation of it
Utilisation of local taxes for local welfare

#Stages

Mayo's Reso[lution] of 1870 — financial dec[entralisation] → local taxes

Ripon's Resolution, 1882

Father of LSG [Local Self-Government]

a) Devt [Development] of LB to improve admin b) Definite duties & sources of revenue c) Non-official majority d) ↑ chairperson too e) Min official interference f) Official © [government] sanction kept in certain cases

Pitfalls:

→ Ltd [Limited] franchise
→ District boards control to be headed by DO [District Officer]
→ Govt retained strict control
→ Official © [official government] sanction
1908 Royal Commission on Dec → progressive so not applied
July 1919 also
LSG was a democracy but Finance — reserved
1935 Act — some powers transferred, others → [illegible] → other [illegible]

#Economic Impact of British Rule in India

Beginning of 19th c[entury]: India's share in world economy = 23% 1947 → 3%

#1. Deindustrialisation — ruin of artisans

One way free trade
No step toward modern industry
Loss of patronage
Ruralisation = pressure on land

#2. Impoverishment of Peasantry

Permanent settlement ←— 4 colonial eco[nomic] policies
No spending on ↑ land productivity
Huge powers to zamindars ←— 2 ruin of handicrafts
Lega[cies] ←— 3 new land revenue system
Moneylenders & debt cycle ←— 4 no admin[istration] exp[enditure]
Triple burden of — govt + zamindars + moneylenders △ [triangle]
Famine & scarcity
Peasants became landless
Indigo cultivation

#3. Emergence of Intermediaries, Absentee Landlordism, Ruin of old zamindars

#4. Migration & Deterioration of Agriculture

#5. Famine & Poverty

#6. Commercialisation of Indian Agri[culture]

→ Spread of money economy
→ Custom & tradition ——→ contract & competition
→ Emergence of unequal [money-lender] relationships
→ Growth of internal trade
→ Improvement in comm[unications] through rail & road
→ Hurt to external trade by Br[itish] finance capital etc.

#7. Destruction of Industry & Late dev[elopment] of Modern Industry

→ Textile, shipping, steel industry &
→ Deficit policy, no tariff protection, unequal competition, lopsided devt [development]

#Role of Women in Indian Freedom Struggle

IFS [Indian Freedom Struggle] would be incomplete w/o women

Fought with true spirit, courage
Began in 1817 — Bhima Bai Holkar (guerilla warfare) — much before Rani Channama, Kittur; Rani Begum Hazrat Mahal, Awadh (in 1857 revolt)
1857 — Credible role:
- Rani of Ramgarh, Rani Jindan Kaur, Chauhan Rani etc.
- Rani Laxmi Bai of Jhansi — tariff *
Mostly belonged to educated & liberal families + from all caste/religion/communities
20th century — Sarojini Naidu, Kasturba Gandhi, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Annie Besant
"Empress of a shittier empire of glory"

#Key Women Leaders

Sarojini Naidu — Nightingale of India

Writer & poet
Pres[ident] of INC
Comm[itted to] Salt Satyagraha

Besant [Annie Besant]

Launched Home Rule Movement
Pres[ident] of INC
Reforms, labour organiser & strike leader
Edu[cation] — college & schools set up

Madam Cama

Social worker
Unfurled flag in Germany

Kamala Nehru

Forefront of NCM [Non-Cooperation Movement]
Organised picketing
Delivered Jawaharlal's speech after her arrest

Vi Pandit [Vijayalakshmi Pandit]

1st woman to become Pres[ident] of UNGA
Arrested many times for CDM [Civil Disobedience Movement]

Muna Asaf Ali

QIM [Quit India Movement]
Flag in Bombay
Edited "Inquilab"
Bharat Ratna awardee

Kalpana Dutta

Joined Bose
Chittagong armory raids

Kasturba Gandhi

With Gandhiji all her life
Leader of women Satyagraha
Social reform & constructive work

Usha Mehta

Simon Go Back
Underground radio during QIM [Quit India Movement]
Others — Sucheta Kriplani, Lakshmi Sehgal, Kamladevi

#Gandhiji's Methods for Women's Inclusion

Gandhiji ke aage se kaafi badhaava mila

Needed for Satyagraha:
- Self sacrifice
- Tolerate
- Endure suffering
- = Perfect for non-violent struggle
Nehru too encouraged (Western influence) & Bose
Not only non-violent: women participated ferociously in picketing shops, protests, Prabhat Pheris, social work, role as messenger, jailed during Bande Mataram march, assassinations & raids, underground activities
Fought for their rights too
Legislative councillors bhi bangi [also became]
MNC [Modern National Congress?]
Labour movt too — Mill strike (Anusaya Ben)
Laid down their lives (countless of them) — as equals to the big leaders
Integral role as messengers, supporters, wives, mothers and leaders

Uneven regional rep[resentation] + more East
Total exclusion of non-elite groups
Western educated people dominated
Lawyers = 40%; also traders, journalists, doctors etc.
Hindu dominated (2 decades) — Hindus means the Brahmins & upper castes
- Except Badruddin Tyabji

#Why INC Accepted Partition?

= success/failure dichotomy

Acceptance was a final act of long process [1916 ML SE dd Nehru Report etc]
Mountbatten plan
Mass mobil[isation] by ML [Muslim League] & its unrelentingness
Communal violence
Chances of immediate independence
Hope for relief

#Commercialisation of Agriculture

Negative	Positive
↑ in Inequality	↑ Transformed I[ndia] into a capitalistic form
Benefited only the big planters, traders	Led exports
Dependence on △ [triangle] moneylenders ↑	Integration of economy
Food crop prod[uction] ↓	Agri problem acquired new form = mobil[isation] of peasants
Regional agri of crop ↓	Regional app[lication] of crops
Agri unable to avoid risk↓
Absent self-sufficiency
Peasant revolts, famines, scarcity ↑

#Missionaries

Positive	Negative
Initiated reforms by Indian reformers	Destroyed self confidence & self respect of natives
Leprosy eradication & other social work	Mass conversion
Modern edu[cation] spread	Humiliated Hinduism & its culture as a "dark universe of whose life dies & death lives"
Set up hospitals e.g: Christian Medical College Vellore	Disrupted tribal life
Raised the std[standard] of living of tribals
Unified Indians

#Factors for Growth of Dalit Consciousness

New edu[cational]/pol[itical] system based on individual liberty, equality, democracy
Reaction against the high handedness of Hindu upper castes
Help through British Divide & Rule policy
Influence of Westernphile [Western-educated] — "Rights of Man" — Jyotiba Phule
Commerciali[sation] of agri — new contractual rel[ationships], more opportunities
Social reformers — Phule, SNDP, EV Naicker [Periyar]
British policy & acts — reservations?
Gandhiji's work
C[onstitution] of India
BR Ambedkhar [Ambedkar]

"There comes a time in the life of every nation when it stands at crossroads of history & must choose which way to go." — Shastriji

#Permanent Settlement

Expectations (left column)
- Detailed record of land holding
- Improving the agri [agricultural] prod [production]
- Financial gains to co [Company] (£91?)
- Reduced corruption due to fixed nature
- Landholders will invest money
- Financial savings from abcl [abolition?] of revenue collection machinery
Reality (right column)
- Conflicts b/w [between] Zn [Zamindars] & [and] EIC [East India Company]
- Distancing of co [Company] DC [District Collector?] & the people
- Sunset law — Zn [Zamindars] failed to pay during drought, floods → sold away
- Deprived state of a share in ¼ of rent
- Zn = owner of land, peasant was impoverished
- Sub-feudalization & absentee landlordism

#Patel's Approach to Integrate Princely States

Patel approach — Carrot vs Stick diagram

#Carrot (incentives offered)

Aroused spirit of "nat" [nationalism] in rulers
Protection of trade rights
Autonomy in internal matters
Privy purses, governor ship as Rajpramukho [Rajpramukh]
Woo [wooed] integr [integration] — their economies would collapse

#Stick (coercive methods)

Used threat of popular protest
Encouraged Praja Mandals to agitate for accession — [Travancore, Mysore, Orissa] — too [many]
Cut off critical supplies & "lines of communication" to hostile states like Junagadh
Threat of military action (Junagadh)
Police action (Hyd [Hyderabad])

#Impact of C [Central] Asian Contact on India

Impact of Central Asian contact on India — three-column tree diagram

#Socio-Cultural

Art — Gandhara, Mathura
Lit [Literature] — Ashwaghosa, patronized by Kushana. Jkk lit?
Architecture — brick walls, red pottery
Social tensions & religion — ® [Buddhism] Morals &, Mahayana ®
Horoscope from Greeks

#Political

Feudal?, mil [military] governorship
Ashoka-Devaram-Piyadasi [dear to god]
Hut [first] Kushana-Devaputra (son of God)
Warrior class — absorbed in Kshatriyas

#Economic

Gold coins — intro [introduced] by Kushanas
New trade routes
Silk route control by Kushanas
Promoted agri [agriculture] — large scale irrig [irrigation]

#Handicraft Industries

→ High tariffs on Br [British] mkt [market]
→ Competition ↑

#Negatives

Destroyed self-sufficiency of village economy
Overcrowded agri [agriculture]
Agri labourers — as no land, no resources
Decline of commercial centres like Surat, Dhaka
Void not filled by → modern industries

#Positives

Availability of foreign goods
Growth of modern form of exchange system
Economic integration with ROW [Rest of World]
Created base for modern industries
Emergence of new labour class

#Dyarchy

GOI [Government of India] Act, 1919
- → Governor [at top]
  - [Reserved] → at Provincial level
  - [Transferred] → Governor acting with I [Indian] Ministers
April 1921 – April 1937

#Limits of Dyarchy

Illogical & irrational division
- eg: Agri [Agriculture] = T/f [Transferred]; Irrigation = Res [Reserved]
Conflict b/w [between] Mins [Ministers] & [Executive] Council (bicrats) & Governor
- sided with the latter
Mins [Ministers] ultimately resp [responsible] to Governor (Governor had veto powers)
No money — Finance was Reserved

#Peasant Movements

Rec [Recognised/Highlighted] by subaltern historians like R. Guha

#Phase 1 — 1857–1899

Localised
Against immediate exploitation — [foreign planters, Indigo zamindars, money lenders] △ [triangle diagram]
Specific & ltd [limited] obj [objective] (no anti-colonial target)
Unorg [Unorganised]
No continuity
ut [ultimately] fry [fraying?] of old societal order
eg: Deccan Riots, Indigo Revolt ✗

#Phase 2 — 1900–1920

+++ of nat [national] consciousness & INM [Indian National Movement]
Singly exploitative policies
Arrival of Gandhi
Training ground for nat [national] leaders (Patel)
eg: Kheda, Champaran

#Phase 3 — 1920–2[0?]

+++ by part of communists & leftists
Pan India persp [perspective] with formation of All India Kisan Sabha 1936

#Peasant Movements (continued — page 19)

→ Autonomous peasant movt [movement]
→ General ad [demands] like ↓ land revenue, ↑ wages
→ Took communal tones sometimes (Mapila)

#Phase 4 — 1930 onwards

Growth of ref [reformist] ideas among peasants
Reinforced Gandhian ideals
Decline struggle
eg: Tebhaga Movt [Movement], Telangana Movt [Movement]

#Unique Features of Gandhian Movt [Movement]

Non violent — eg
Struggle-Truce-Struggle — undefined Technique / Strategy
Defined Swaraj in widest possible sense
All India character
Women part
Brought the subaltern into mainstream — Dalits, peasants
Combined pol [political] reforms with socio-religious reforms (untouchability)

#Clive as Founder of Br [British] Empire — In → 4?

+++ of trading co [company] into territorial power
War against Sirajut Daulah in Battle of Plassey
Battle of Buxar — Mughal empire [reference]
Treaty of Allahabad → Dual govt [government]
Siege of Fort & defeat of French in and [?] carnatic way
Created [ICS] covenanted CS [Civil Service]

#Warren Hastings as Admin [Administrative] Org [Organiser]

Revenue reforms — Board of Rev, Ijaradari
Judicial — Sadar Diwani & Sadar Nizamat + cod [Code] of laws
Trade — Abolished dastak, uniform tariff of £5-1 of Indian & non-I [Indian] goods

#Famines

Beginning with Bengal famine of 1769 wiping out ⅓ of pop [population]
19th century witnessed many "British made disasters" like:
- 1833 → Guntur
- 1860 → Delhi, Agra
- 1866 → Orissa (1.2 lac people died)
- 1876–78 → Bengal famine (58 mn affected)
- 1896–97 → Whole India

#Causes

Non-Availability of Food

Decline in agri [agricultural] prod [production]
Comm [Commercialisation] of agri [agriculture]
Loss of soil fertility [Lord(s)?]
No modern [?]
Export during wars

Lack of Purchasing Power

Drain of wealth
Decline of handicrafts, rural economy
No surplus with peasantry
Burden of taxes

#Measures Taken

During EIC: no resp [response] taken
Only after British crown took over, half-hearted measures like:
- ⊙ 1860–61 → Board Smith Comm [Commission] — no concrete result (Delhi, Agra)
- 1866 → George Campbell (Orissa)
- 1878 → Richard Strachey (Bengal)
- 1896–97 → Lyall Comm [Commission]
With GOI 1919, famine resp [responsibility] passed on to provincial govt [government]

#Role of Foreigners

Social service — Mitre Teresa [Mother Teresa]
Notary of peaceful, constructive methods
Practised INC [Indian National Congress] (AB [Annie Besant]?, Nalini Sengupta, [?]) — people working with [?]
- 1. Religion — Sister Nivedita — helped in Bengal famine. Also women, from Ireland. [Ramakrishna Mission]
- 1. Edu [Education] & culture — AB [Annie Besant]
- 1. Social work — N. Sengupta, Nura Ben, Sarla Ben
- 1. Labour rights — Dinbandhu (CF Andrews) — [?]
- 1. Tribals — Verrier Elwin (Badish, Seva Sandi Songs & Poona?, Sehur Gond Seva Mandal?)

#Annie Besant

Irish, Theosophical Soc [Society]
Central Hindu School @ Banaras (BHU later)
Home Rule Movt [Movement]
Reconciliation b/w [between] Moderates & Extremists
New India & Commonweal [newspapers]
INC Presi [President] 1917 — 1st women

#CF Andrews (Dinbandhu)

Eng [English] missionary philanthropist
Political & social morals [?]
Championed labour rights — railways, cotton mills
Worked with BR Ambedkar for Harijan date [cause]
Title by [Gandhi] for his compassion for poor
Advocated rights of Indians in S [South] Africa, West Indies
Used his influence in England to further I [Indian] cause
Negotiated with govt [government] in "for Gandhi's release"

#Miraten / Madelein Slade — English aristocratic from

Gandhian Saharmate Ashram
Toured I [India] to promote Khadi & Sg [Spinning?]
Wrote articles in Young I, Toj [?], Harijan
Role in setup of Seva gram near Wardha
Went to Btr [Britain] with Gandhi
[Mira Behn / Mirabehn identity note]

#Role of Press

First = Bengal Gazette (1780) — 1780 [?]
Moderate phase — calu [calculate?], political propaganda, consol [consolidation] of public opinion
Int [International] events (Russian Rev, Crimean wars) were disseminated through newspapers
Tool to criticise imperialist policies eg: Lytton's Delhi Durbar (VPA) eg: Bengalee of SN Banerjee
Social reform eg Gandhi's Harijan
Britain clampdown → VPA, 1978 [?]
- Sec 124A IPC
- PA [Press Act] 1910
- Ball & Tilak ] eg SN Bannerjee
Way out — Quoting Br [British] newspapers, presenting criticism as advise to the chosen [Crown]
- Neel Darshan
- Ananda Math — Vande Mataram

#Middle Class in INM [Indian National Movement]

Hailed as Middle Class Movt [Movement] — the prof [professional] like lawyers, doctor, vachir [?], pig [?], landlords etc

Reasons for Domination

Edu [Education] awareness → Jobs → Eco interest → Social reform [four-box flow]

Limitations

Failed to take up int [interest] of farmers/workers
No path to masses
Satisfied with minor concessions by Br [British]

#Role of Industrialists → FF [Freedom Fighters?] ISC [Indian Students Congress?]

Part of movt [movement] of Jamnalal Bajaj [in?] NCM [Non-Cooperation Movement]
Supporters of Nationalist struggle eg: GD Birla (SDM [?])
Ambalas Sarabhai (since 2016?)
Financial quarters eg Watchand Hirachand funded many activities of INC
Created pressure groups to counter Br [British] policies
- eg: GD Birla founded FICCI
Acquired industries — birla jute mills | Steam Nawafce by Albi? no Chadabhyogi [?]
Constructive work eg: Jamnalal was Pres [President] of Gandhi Seva Sangh
- Own resources are high & starting rate
(→ Anti NCM from(?) 1920 — Purshotamdas Thakurdas & others opposed second phase of com [?] for fear of strikes)

#Militant Nationalism

#Features

Swaraj as final aim
BC [British] could never favour I [Indian] cause
Rejected their nat [national] predecessors ("pal mendicants")
Used extra ©ational [?] methods also
Faith in masses
Use of force

#Reasons

Reactionary policies of Br [British]
Growth of confidence in own abilities
Int [International] influence (Boer War)
Dissatisfy [Dissatisfaction] with Mods [Moderates]

#Impact

New forms of struggle
Expansion of social base
Beyond pol [political] demands
Socialism [Socialism]
Int [International] efforts
Part of women eg w/surya Sen

#Limitations

Unclear on idea of Swaraj
Communal pol [politics] / Conservative
No org [organisation] / party structure was created
Didn't reconcile with Mods [Moderates]
Didn't incorporate Muslims
Killing of innocent people — women instead of Hardinge

#Role of Students

Henry Vivian Derozio
First party [participation?] in 1905 Bengal Partition
Supported INC
Split b/w [between] 2 groups after Surat
M [Mahatma] Gandhi's followers — arrests
1920 — Sh [?] AISC → Nagpur — Lala Rai [Lajpat Rai?]
Role in no-tax campaign, 1921, COM [?], Bandi Sg [Satyagraha?], Khadi, Mandal [?]
- Swadeshi
1936 — AISF — First student org [organisation] of I [India] — 1938 All Youth Congress
- AISF
Aim as stimulus of youth move [movement]
Aim as stimulus of youth movt [movement]
- Boycotted schools for large no [number]
- Mass processions & rallies
- Cut telephone wires, block adults etc

#Industrialists (separate note)

Jamnalal [?]means [?]
Faced labour issues
Cong [Congress] in 1950 dominated by socialists & communists
9 specific capacities [?] aid by Gandhi (11 [?])
1. Stabling [Stabilising?] & minting rate
2. [Promotion?] of cotton industry
3. Removal of coastal shipping for Indians

#Cold War — World Map Diagram

Cold War world map showing US & its allies (hatched), USSR & allies (cross-hatched), NAM

Legend:
- [hatched] = US & its allies
- [cross-hatched] = USSR & allies
- [blank] = NAM [Non-Aligned Movement]

#Continental System

(No entry in Europe)
Berlin Decree (1806)
- ↓
- Warsaw Decree (1807) — (Poland joined)
- Fontainebleau (1807) [Bilbao Decree] — (seize & destroy)
  - ↓
  - Milan Decree (1807) — (Italy joined)

#Culture — Swadeshi Reference

Made in India → Hand-made in India

#Folk Painting — Map of India

Folk painting styles mapped on India — Phad (Rajasthan), Madhubani (Bihar), Warli (MH), Paitkar (Odisha), Thanjavur (TN)

Phad (Rajasthan) — NW India
Madhubani (Bihar) — NE India
Warli (MH [Maharashtra]) — W India
Paitkar (Odisha) — E India
Thanjavur (TN [Tamil Nadu]) — S India

#Bengal Partition

37 mn — Hindi + Oriya
17 mn — Bengali
Calcutta [at centre of map]
Bengal Province → W. Bengal
Bengali → Assam → E. Bengal
4/5 1Hm : 1B/3 1Hm [40/54 Hindus : 18/31 Muslims — approximate]
- Hindu : Muslim ratio shown in divided Bengal

#Policy of Appeasement

Hitler denounced Treaty of Versailles
- ↓
Britain & France didn't condemn Germany for its military
- ↓
Pbt [Sudetenland?] of Czechoslovakia annexed
- ↓
Munich Agreement 1938 ← ✗
- ↓
Germany invaded whole of Czechoslovakia
- ↓
Britain & Germany wanted no mil [military] confrontation

#Maratha — Rise and Fall

Maratha timeline flowchart — 1701 Mughals declining → Marathas rise → Swaided Anglo-M not equal → 1750 Marathas at helm of power → End of Maratha Empire 1818

1701: Declining Mughals stabilised
- → Marathas got opportunity to rise
Swaided [?] Anglo M [Anglo-Maratha] not equal
- ↓
- pol [political] inability — Maratha defeated
1750: Maratha at helm of power
- ↓
End of Maratha Empire 1818

#Korean War Timeline

Korea divided — May 1945 ↑
- June 1950 — N [North Korea] invades S [South] Korea
- US enters — June
- Sept — victory at Incheon / China enters
- Peace talks — 1951
- 1953 — Truce reached

#Nehru vs Gandhi

Parameter	Nehru	Gandhi
Outlook	Westernised outlook — derived inspiration from cultural of West, pragmatic ideas	Oriental outlook — cultural heritage of India, traditions, values, idealistic
Democracy	Parliament democracy, democratic socialism	Spiritualised democracy, village republics
Industry	Believed in industrial, scientific advancement, tech	No — sada jivan, labour intensive, cottage industry
Foreign Policy	An internationalist, active foreign policy	India should not interfere much in foreign affairs
Compromise	Ready to compromise as per needs of time	Uncompromising on truth, non-violence, purity
Strategy	Struggle-victory strategy	Struggle-Truce-Struggle
Politics	Politics-religion dichotomy	Fusion

#Convergences

Admiration of common ownership, cooperatives
Non-violence
Cosmopolitan outlook
Unified India — "village republics"
Gandhi — architect of Indian Freedom Struggle
Nehru — architect of Independent India

#Nehru vs Patel

Parameter	Nehru	Patel
Economic	Socialist pattern of society	Capitalist
Ideology	Leftist + Idealism	Rightist & Pragmatism
Foreign Policy	Pro-China — delayed "recog" [recognition] to Israel	Questioned China's friendship — favoured it
Army	Nehru rejected Patel advice of modernising army & making adequate security provisions	[implied: Patel recommended modernising]
Hyd [Hyderabad] Issue	Deployment of force delayed due to Nehru	[Patel favoured swift action]
Communalism	Positioned himself as lone defender of Muslim rights & wanted to eliminate Hindu org [organisations] like RSS & HM [Hindu Mahasabha]	More just pragmatic — considered plight of Hindus in Pak [Pakistan] & safeguarded Muslim rights in India
War with Pak [Pakistan]	Averting war with Pak more imp [important] even if it meant unilateral concessions	Principle of determined action for protection of minorities even at the cost of military conflict
Colonial legacy	Dismantle colonial legacy — "neither Indian, nor civil, nor a service"	Continue AIS [All India Services] — "United India..."

#Similarities

Both were patriots
Popular leaders of Congress rank & file
Despite the differences, they preferred to conciliate not divide

#Tagore vs Gandhi

Parameter	Gandhi	Tagore
NCM [Non-Cooperation Movement]	Charkha, Swaraj — "a drowning man can't save others"	Urged nationalists to rise from self-interest; reconcile NCM & work for "welfare of the world"
Language	Hindi / Urdu	English
Foreign cloth	Boycott of foreign cloth	No — Indians can't afford; saw it as a lost opportunity
Religion	Refused to attend RTC [Round Table Conference]; more grounded in religious beliefs — Bihar floods due to untouchability	Surprised at such unscientific view of things, more rational
Technology	Wary of technological advancements	Saw tech as a humanising force & dehumanising
Nation	India was a nation long before British rule	Criticised nationalism as an "epidemic of evil"
Language & Culture	Encouraged Indian language & culture	Union of East & West leading spiritual unity of man

Nehru — "No two persons could probably differ so much as Gandhi & Tagore"

#Similarities

Equal aversion to violent methods
Same side on question of communal award
Similarities b/w [between] Ashram life of Shantiniketan & Phoenix Farm of Gandhi in S [South] Africa
Religious pluralism
Broad minded, inclusive & respectful of diversity
Tagore criticised IR [?] calling it a "demon" — Gandhi too
- 1. Republic of panchayats
- 1. Autonomy at ground level
"The noble debate"

#Gandhi vs Ambedkar

Parameter	Gandhi	Ambedkar
Freedom	Freedom was never to be bestowed but wrested from authorities	Bestowing of freedom by imperial rulers
Democracy	No respect for it — Mass demo [demonstration] = domination of leaders	Parliamentary democracy — Macdemo = pressure mesh?
Principles	No rigid principles except truth & non-violence	Certain rigid principles
Structure	Simple practical alternatives	Institl [Institutional] framework & structures
Unity	Highlighted ® [community] unity — ® has always been a nation prior to Br [British] rule	® [community] identity — by-product of legal system knit by imperials
Gramraj	Gramraj = Ramraj & real India for ® [Hindus]	Gramraj = continuation of social hierarchy, m® [middle?] and d [?] racism — nothing to be proud of — "a clever scheme"
Village	Proud of villages	= bio man German → denounce Hinduism
DK — Harijan	Centre of religion + human and good	Vedas & scriptures are resp [responsible] for manifestation of CS [caste system] and ® [?]
Caste	Caste system had nothing to do with Hindu religious scriptures	Separation
Politics	No separation of religion & politics	Absolute non-violence — end relative means
Abstraction	Say not to non-violence — say not to	Ends justify means
Means	Means justify ends — say not to mechanisation, individual + common authority	Supported ® [individual?] private property
Language	Plain local vernacular lang — non-const [constitutional?] ✓	English — non-const ✗

#Gandhi vs Ambedkar (continued — page 29)

Parameter	Gandhi	Ambedkar
® [Community]	® = integral part of Hindu whole	Religious minority & not a part of Hindus
® [community problem]	® = one of many problems	® = major problem
Studies	Contemporary studies	Historical studies
® solution	® was a social & moral problem — reform of hearts	Solve ® through laws & const [constitutional] methods

"A democratic society must be machinery & more machinery, civilisation and more civilisation" [highlighted in red]

#Similarities

Burning of fg [?] by Gandhi = Burning of Manusmriti by Ambedkar
- Salt from ocean ≈ Water drop from tank/well
- Represented bondage & slavery; were symbolic acts
Edu [Education] to make end [?] desire for change, reform and integrate [?]
Both agreed on the sovereign power of state
- "least govt = best govt"
Religion as an agent of social change
Social transformation through democratic & peaceful means — no violent overthrow practised
Target group & aim converged at some point
Immense contribution by both:
- Gandhi — architect of freedom struggle
- Ambedkar — architect of Indian Constitution

#Bose vs Gandhi

The tussle was most evident in Tripuri session, 1939
1942: Gandhi called Bose "Prince among the patriots"
- "Netaji will remain immortal for all the time to come for his service to India"
Bose — "service that G [Gandhi] has rendered to IFS [Indian Freedom Struggle] is so unique and united that his name will be written in gold on our Nat [National] History — for all time"

Parameter	Bose	Gandhi
Non-Violence vs Military	Force was the only way — com [communication?] a not enough, though effective	Ahimsa & Satyagraha
Means/Ends	Ends	Means
NCM [Non-Cooperation Movement]	Admired for discipline	Deep dislike
Form of Govt	Democracy initially, authoritarian state later	Ramrajya — self-govt & no state
Authority	Centralisation	Decentralisation — completely against it
Military	Deeply attached [to military]	No cap [capital?] / socialisms — back to roots, Sarvoday — "opposed industrial"
Economy	Economic freedom + modern & industrial [?] — Soviet model of devt [development]	Theory of trusteeship — a man of religion, diff path, love & truth, God path & above economic [?]
Religion	Bhagvad Gita + Vivekananda — Hindu spirituality + not literarian — mixed Hindu approach, like Prince [?]	[implied broader, inclusive approach]
Caste & Untouchability	End to trad [traditional] caste hierarchy — egalitarian caste-less society × (?)	Wipe out ® & maintain varna system & strengthen tolerance in India
Women	More robust now — equals [?] — space for [?] for women, part of [?] — female emancipation — female regiment	Put in IFS & avoid [?] against them + but not "modern women"

World History

Topper handwritten notes

#Industrial Revolution (IR)

#Overview

Replacement of manual work by machines
Started in England
Preceded by Agricultural Revolution [Agri Rev]
- Enclosure of land
- Mechanisation of farming
- Crop rotation
- Selective breeding of animals

#Prerequisites / Factors leading to IR

IR Prerequisites — Demographic, Agri, Commercial, Transport revolutions converging

Demographic Revolution → IR
Agri Revolution [Agri Revol] → IR
Commercial Revolution → IR
Transport Revolution → IR
(All four arrows converge into box labelled IR)

#Road to IR (Flowchart)

Road to IR — Evolution of textile → steam engine → transport → lighting → communication

Evolution of Textile Machines (weaving, spinning, sewing)
- → Steam Engine (power; needs coal/fuel)
  - → Development of Transport (too much for roads; inland waterways, canals, railroads)
  - → Lighting (bills / gas lamps)
  - → Communication (telegraph, penny post, telephone)
Iron and Steel (blast furnace, iron bridge, ship)

#Causes of IR (England)

CAUSES	IMPACT
Political stability & no church dom[inance]	Growth of pop[ulation]
Advantageous geo[graphical] location	Urbanisation
New inventions & machinery	Emergence of new classes: capitalists & proletariat[s] (labourers & workers) (−)
Entrepreneurial spirit	Social & pol[itical] conflict due to demand for equality among classes
Colonies — source of raw material & market for goods	Labour movement & socialist ideas
Unattacked land — mil[itary] battles fought elsewhere (foreign land)	Division of labour — factory system [symbol]
Steady growth of pop[ulation]	Expanding economy
Financial stability — revenue from colonies	Intellectual movement
Surplus capital	Large employment — "range" & comm[erce]
Positive world trade	Growth of colonialism & imperialism (−)
Suitable climate	Child labour
Abundant resources — coal, river	Globalisation
Common laws, currency & use of money	Sensitisation

#Second Industrial Revolution — US

Transformation of iron to steel [manufacturing]
Large plant output
Science-based industries — chemicals, electric power & electrical machinery
Growth of automobiles — FORD
Wider "dilat" of ownership through stocks
Scientific way of [production] — Taylor
Farm — combine harvester/thresher, fertilisers, pesticide, genetic plant breeding
Sparsely [variated?] continent lay open to development & exploration
More literate pop[ulation]
Huge internal market & free movement of goods/people/ideas

#Causes & Impact of 2nd IR

CAUSES	IMPACT
Abundance of natural resources like forests, coal, iron, oil, copper, gold, silver, lead	Mechanisation and standardisation
Availability of domestic & foreign capital (not was high)	Raised std [standard] of living
Labour from within the country & immigrants	Corporate ownership widens; gap b/w [between] rich ever (−)
Age of inventions	Pressure on traditional social institutions like family (work away from home) (−)
May poor techniques	Displaced agri[culture] (−)
Power of [trade] guilds [declined]	Urbanisation & city way of life
Able leadership	Red [increased] Immigration
Govt policy of laissez faire & aid to industries	Cultural development
Civil war helped in spreading [ideas]	Labour Union[s]
Gold rush — discovery of gold attracted people	Humanitarians came fwd to help labourers & thus progressive changes
Growth of [industries/entrepreneurs]	Change in pol[itical] philosophy: laissez faire × (high prices); free comp[etition]
Religious problems were absent	Wave of imperialism (−)
Free thinking of intellectuals	Degradation of env[ironment] (−)
	Disparity b/w poor regions/communities

#Industrialisation in Japan

Last country in Asia to get industrialised
Meiji [Meiji Restoration] history
Setting up a ministry of industries
Agri tax — [illegible] → urbanisation
Railway lines laid down
Machine tool factory
Still not [self-sufficient] — import of [textile] machines
Foreign techniques to train workers — tech[nology] in use
Existing industries favoured
[Govt] loan guaranteed by govt
Mission [subsidies?]
[Upskilling] [Encouraging?] etc.
Investment & engineering to related skills
Stress on heavy strategic military & chem[ical] industries
Incl[uding] air & hydroelectric generation & high tension transmission
[Illegible: "char labour & capital cars"]
Limitation of [zaibatsu/military?] system [of] controlled by [few] families
Due to [large] govt [direction] railway after iron [then] steel industry
[Russia used national interest since] economic [stability] of [illegible] need
What Europe did in 100 yrs, Japan did in 30 yrs!!
- IJS [abbreviation]

#Phases of Industrial Revolution

Phases of IR — Phase 1 (1760–1850) and Phase 2 (late 19c) side by side; ongoing column

Phase I (1760–1850)	Phase II (late 19c)	Ongoing
Mech[anisation] of textile industry	Scientific Invention	Comm[unication] tech
Mining & metallurgy	Steel	Internet
Steam engine	Chemi[cals]	Energy
Transport	Mass prod[uction]	Robots / AI
England, Netherlands	USA & Germany	3D printing — digital [manufacturing]

#Discussion Questions (from notes)

Why did IR not begin in China/India?
On your opinion, do the benefits of IR outweigh its sombre consequences?

#Is it a Revolution or just Evolution?

Arnold Toynbee — "Indust[rial]" is an evolutionary process

Why Evolution?

Time — 1760s to present
Space / Geog[raphical] spread: Europe → America → Asia → Africa (last)
Product / Commodity: Textile → [then] IoT
Nature of fuel / [energy] prices: Coal → Nuclear → Renewable → did [continue]
Factory — Labour → Robotics

IR 1.0	IR 2.0	IR 3.0	IR 4.0
18c	19c	20c	21c
Water & steam / factory system	Electricity / mass prod[uction]	Use of IT & electronics	Cyber-physical goods

Why Revolution?

Complete economy rejuvenated
Factory system (from cottage [industry])
Industrial relations changed
Political, economic, social institutions changed

#American Revolution (AR)

#Nature of American Revolution

Violent & progressive
Mass participation — popular revolution
Democracy, equality, fundamental rights — progressive revolution
Reactionary as it did not seek to change existing social or political scenario
"Not of 'Total Rev'", more of a move for home rule
Gave way to market economy
Altered social structure
End of slavery
Not a social hierarchy or hereditary monarchy — big [breakthrough] of Democracy & Republican govt — pol[itical] revolution
Spirit of freedom, secularism, sovereignty, social justice — ideological revolution
Expansion of middle / trading / business class — Bourgeois Revolution

#Bourgeoisie Revolution

Most affected section — tax at every nook & corner, [tax on] almost all [kinds of] goods
Favoured the most [by the revolution]
Harmed [the] constitution?
American Constitution is an expression of hopes & aspiration of bourgeois class & hence called an ECONOMIC DOCUMENT

#Hamilton–Jefferson Debate

Strong Centre vs Strong State
- Ultimately compromise in form of Federation
Massachusetts Assembly — 1765 [Boston Tea Party?]
Boston Tea Party — 1773
Philadelphia Congress — 1774
Dec[laration] of Independ[ence] — [1776]
Rule of Ind[ia]

Virginia Plan (Large States) | New Jersey Plan (Small States)

Virginia Plan	New Jersey Plan
(Big states)	(Small states)
Bicameral	Unicameral
Rep[resentation] based on pop[ulation]	Equal rep[resentation]
By Madison (proposed)	By Paterson

The Great Compromise again → Connecticut Compromise

#Consequences of American Revolution

13 colonies into 1 nation — symbol in notes

American colonies became free & USA was established
Democratic govt with written constitution became a reality
Bill of Rights ensured Fundamental Rights to US citizens
Complete freedom of worship & prayer
Intro of Democracy with separation of powers
Capitalist economy is encouraged growth
Bout to demand & hence industries
Open ports for world trade
Great blow to absolute monarchy → Impact on Britain
American Revolution called as Mother of Federal Govt
Inspired French Revolution
Inspired anti-colonial revolutionaries throughout the world — Domino Effect in Europe
Inspired nationalists in India

Decolonisation Timeline

Year	Event
1789	France
1836	Latin America
20c	Decolonisation

#How AR Inspired FR [French Revolution]?

Frenchmen like Lafayette fought against Brits with Americans & returned to France with ideas
Am[erican] diplomats & revolutionaries like B. Franklin [—] French [philosophers] had lived in Paris & [shared their] ideas to [illegible] intellectuals
Fr[ench] philo[sophers] — Rousseau's dream seemed realised in US — AR showed that it was possible to organise a govt on Enlightenment ideas in practice
AR bankrupted France

#American Civil War

"Of American Rev[olution] made USA an independent nation, the Civil War made USA a modern nation"

#North–South Divide

NORTH	SOUTH
Mfg [Manufacturing], Inventors, Scientists	Planters, slave holders
Industrial	Agricultural
Urban	Rural
Free states	Slave states
More powerful & liberal	Less power

#Causes of American Civil War

Slavery — Crime in N[orth]; but to [illegible] legal in S[outh] (plantations)
Economic divide due to nature of business & mindset of people
Had better connectivity & cosmopolitan outlook
Social contrast — Discrimination on skin color, racial segregation (apartheid)
Rise of industries in England → cotton boom → need [for] slaves
Kansas–Nebraska Act — free [people] of a state to be decided by people
Conditioned by N[orth] Republican [Lincoln]
Election of Abraham Lincoln (N[orth])
States vs Federal rights
Abolitionist Movement — slaves to be freed immediately vs gradual [emancipation]

#Impact of American Civil War

Abolition of slavery from South — [declared] illegal
Union was preserved
Policy of Reconstruction by Andrew Johnson
Civil [rights] for rights of slaves
Racial discrimination ended
Right to vote for Blacks
Abolition of apartheid
Urbanisation & development of Roads, Railways, Industries

#Role of Abraham Lincoln

Declared seceding of states as unconstitutional
Wanted to save US solidarity
Never encouraged slavery
Did military mobilisation from N[orth] to S[outh]
Issued Emancipation Proclamation
- Didn't immediately free a slave
- Led to those parts of America where control of armed forces was there
- Didn't apply to slave states because it would have been unconstitutional
Lincoln took an active role to ensure passage of 13th CAm [Constitutional Amendment] through Congress — for slavery; a const[itutional] sol[ution] was found
14th & 15th CAm [Constitutional Amendments] expanded civil rights greatly
Granted US citizenship to African Americans (14th)
15th CAm — right to vote (15th)

#US Constitution

1st written const[itution] of world — 1789
Ideals of liberty, rule of law
Natural rights of men — Bill of Rights
Separation of power — Montesquieu
System of checks & balance

#Criticisms of AR [American Revolution]

No deep change in society (like FR)
No universal rights — only to men holding property (15–20% of pop[ulation])
No rights to slaves (30%+) or women
Power taken from [old] white English men & consolidated into American men
Ideas were very strong but policies/implementation were weak

#French Revolution

#French Revolution Timeline

Phase	Year	Event
Phase I — Bourgeois Phase	1789	Starting of Revolution
	1789	Formation of National Assembly
	1789	Nat[ional] Ass[embly] → Constituent Assembly
	1789	Attack on Bastille Fort
	1789	Declaration of Rights of Man & the Citizens
Phase II	1791	National Assembly — constitutional monarchy
Phase III — Radical Phase	1792	National Convention — Republic
	1793	Jacobins
	1795	Directory Rule (5 people)
	1795–98	Rise of Napoleon
Phase III — Age of Napoleon	1799	Napoleon comes to power
	1804	Napoleon becomes Emperor
	1815	Defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo; starting of Metternich System

#French Society — Estate System

French Society Pyramid — 1st Estate (Church & Clergy), 2nd Estate (Aristocrats & Nobles), 3rd Estate (Common Man)

1st Estate — Church & Clergy
- Upper clergy & lower clergy
- < 1% of pop[ulation]
- 15% of resources
- No taxes
2nd Estate — Aristocrats & Nobles
- 2% of pop[ulation]
- 20% [of] land
- No taxes
3rd Estate — Common man
- 97+% of pop[ulation]

#Causes of French Revolution (FR)

Political — Absolute monarchy
- Divine rights theory
Social — Growth of industries & rise of middle class
- Growing burden of feudal dues
- Rising poverty
Economic — Growing govt debt
- Attempt to tax nobles
- Tax burden on Third Estate
Intellectual — Growth of new ideas e.g. everyone born free & equal
- American Revolution [as inspiration]

#Impact of French Revolution

Impact on French people / on Europe / on World — three column table

On French People	On Europe	On World
End of monarchy	Domino effect — Ireland, Poland	Emergence of nationalism & impetus to nation-state system
Church authority ↓	Monarchy vs Revolutionaries	Unity of Germany, Italy etc.
End of principled [class]-based social system	Napoleon as architect of modern Europe	LEF [Liberal, Equality, Fraternity] ideals
End of feudalism & serfdom		Declaration of Rights of Man
Admin & economic reforms
Economic changes

#Napoleon — +ve and −ve

Positive (+ve)

Centralised administration
Army reforms — merit-based, speed & mobility
State-led edu[cation] & French Uni[versity] system
Nat[ional] — Bank of France estd[ablished]; railway, uniform tax policy, mkt [market] reforms, roads & bridges
Secular policy — liberty to follow any religion

Negative (−ve)

Curbed liberty — press censorship
Underestimated nat[ional] Spanish elect
Highly ambitious
Continuous wars
Couldn't challenge naval power of Britain

#Continental System (Napoleon)

Called Britain as 'nation of shopkeepers'
Planned to bring Britain to its knees
Devised Continental System in 1806
An economic blockade that restricted British goods from entering Europe
Got support of Russians, Austrians & Prussians
Hoped Britain would undergo a serious depression
Meanwhile he was building his own ships
Berlin Decree — banned British ships from entering European ports
Milan Decree — against smuggling & states that neutral ships that stopped in Britain were subject to confiscation
Britain retaliated through sea power & wouldn't allow ships to sail on what was then Britain's ocean
This system boomeranged
First, Portugal defied it; then Russia

#Vienna Congress (1815)

#Objectives

To restore Europe to pre-FR times
Isolate France in Euro politics
Compensate war-affected countries
Maintain balance of power
Check revolutionary ideas

#Merits

Protest against slavery
Strong action against pirates
Restoration of peace
No oppt[opportunity] to German unity (German conf[ederation] after Metternich system)
Reconstruction of Europe

#Demerits

Unnatural unity (of Belgium & Holland) — Catholic/Protestant mix
Disregarded liberalism & nationalism
Revenge on France
Ignored Eastern disputes
Rise of Austria (as it affected Napoleon)
End of Holy Roman Empire

#French Revolutions — 1830 and 1848

1830 vs 1848 French Revolution comparison table

1830	1848
Middle class revolution	Socialist revolution
Against reactionary policies of Charles X	Unpopularity of Louis Philippe
Democratic	Nationalist
For constitutional govt	For nationalist govt
Put another Bourbon King on throne	Declared a Republic
RI [restricted] vote given	RI [Right of] vote practiced

#Russian Revolution

#Three Revolutions

R1 (1905)	R2 (Feb/Mar 1917) — Julian Calendar	R3 (Oct/Nov 1917) — Gregorian Calendar
Bloody Sunday		October Revolution
Immediate cause: Russo-Japanese war; plotting into housing [issue]; expiation; national humiliation; social economy; [poor] conditions
DUMA → Capital membership [bicameral legislature]; fundamental laws; addition & censorship

R1 (1905) details

Bloody Sunday
Immediate cause: Russo-Japanese war, plotting into [issues of] housing
National humiliation
Social economy [issues]
[Poor] conditions
DUMA formed → capital [central] membership [bicameral legislature]; fundamental laws; abolition of censorship

R2 (Feb/Mar 1917) Causes

Pol[itical] causes — Pol[itical]: divine right theory of kingship; Rev[olution] of 1905; autocratic rule of Czar; inefficient & corrupt bureaucracy
Eco[nomic] causes — Outdated agri, no machines; cold climate; quasi-feudal tenure; irrational taxation; no state sponsorship to agri; financial sources; inhumane condition of workers
Social discrimination b/w nobles (privileged, had huge land) & unprivileged workers; peasants [paid] taxes

"Rev[olution] of 1905 was a dress rehearsal for the 1917 Revolution"

#Role of Philosophers

Exposed real character of monarchy
Inspired by Karl Marx, Maxim Gorky, Bakunin
Spread revolutionary ideas

#Role of War & Crises

Russia & always wars by Czar
- Napoleonic War (1801–15) — dominance over Korea & Manchuria
- Crimean War (1854) — for capture of warm water port
- Russo-Japanese War (1905) — Immediate cause of 1905 Revolution
- First World War — Imm[ediate] cause of 1917 Revolution (fatal for Russia)
  - Readily 5mn men lost; heavy losses — mutinies by army

#Nature of Russian Revolution

Nature of Revolution table — Pol Rev, Social Rev, Popular Rev

Pol[itical] Rev[olution]	Social Rev[olution]	Popular Rev[olution]
Change in govt; formation of [new] political order	Progressive rev (end of [land] mediation)	Bourgeois [and] Marxist rev[olution]

#Consequences of Russian Revolution

War against economic oppression
Destroyed rising of capitalism
Foundation of Socialism — end of monarchy
End of pvt [private] property
Established workers' control over industries
Centralised economy
Five Year Plans — planning was an imp[ortant] contribution of Russian Revolution to the world
Nationalisation of land
Social equality
Social benefits to people — free medical care, education, unemp[loyment] allowance etc.
Rights of people
Equality for women
Concept of welfare state emerged
Separation of religion from politics
Abolition of old secret treaties
Withdrawal claims over many areas
Against imperialist Russia

"Russian Revolution organised millions of proletarians to make their own destiny & to form a new society, who wars, & exploitation, who classes into nations & into poverty & a communist society"

#Role of Lenin

Aware of past failures of reform
Able to accurately judge the possible sol[ution] in that situation
Great personality
Skilful tactician
Galvanised Bolshevik party into a true rev[olutionary] group
Opposed to parliamentary democracy — Bourgeois democracy he used to call it
Cut approach [pragmatic]
Criticism of imperialism & capitalism
His book — "Imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism"
Forwarded a programme — "peace, land & bread"
Influenced by Marxist scientific socialism
Did reforms:
1. Abolished pvt property/gave lands to peasants
2. Starting of factories/workshops with compensation
3. Compulsory labour for all
Introduced NEP in 1921

#NEP (1921) & Impacts

Was [for political] & realistic & thus realised that to save communism, he must accept little capitalism
Following steps:
1. Regeneration of Agriculture
  - Allowed peasants to sell their agri stocks in open market
  - Removal of landlords
  - Replaced collective farming by cooperative farming
2. Nationalisation of agri
3. Nationalisation of industries
4. Beginning of private trade — through barter
5. Currency reforms

#Analysis of NEP

Progressive step
Aimed at pol[itical] & economic stability
Capitalism was used to start development & then Lenin took control over economy
Foreign [investors] nationalised if they paid part profits to state
Influenced Nehruvian period in India & economic conditions of India: like land reform, agrarian, cooperative farming, industrial plans, labour reforms, foreign [relations], etc. — all influenced by Lenin's NEP

#World War 1

Also known as: The Great War / The War to end all Wars / Global War

#Why it was a turning point in world history

Huge mobilisation of men
Colonies were also made to fight → entire world participation
New tools — aeroplanes, tanks, submarines
Sea battles
Civilian pop[ulation] were involved & became casualties
Affected world economy

#Causes of World War 1

1) Radical Nationalism & Mad Race for Colonies

Linked with extending areas of control & ↑ military strength
French rev[olution]'s nationalism spread in entire Europe by Napoleon
Balkan states — for wanted freedom of their people elsewhere

2) System of Secret Alliances

Handiwork of Bismarck
Triple Alliance & Triple Entente (F+B+R) [France+Britain+Russia]
- (A+G+I) [Austria+Germany+Italy]

3) Militarism

Militarism became synonymous with national prestige
Mad race for armaments

4) Absence of Int[ernational] Organisation

5) Economic & Imperialistic Rivalries

Principal field: Africa (Scramble for Africa)
For raw mat[erials] & market
France & Britain — large colonial empire
Germany & Italy too eyed Africa & Asia

6) Moroccan Crisis

German intervention to support Moroccan Independence against French (given by Britain)
Pact by Int[ernational] Conference: French won (1904–05)

#World War I — Causes (continued from Part 1)

#7) Balkan Crisis

In 1911, Germany sent warship to protect against Britain — supported [by Triple Alliance]
In 1908:
- Balkan states attacked Turkey to occupy Ottoman Empire
- 1908 — Austria annexed Bosnia here
  - Was a [rude] shock of Russia's unpreparedness for war to support Serbia
- 1911 — Serbia wanted parts of Austria with Slavic pop[ulation]

Alliance Blocs Diagram — Balkan Flashpoint

Alliance blocs: Austria+Germany+Italy vs Russia+France+Britain with Serbia/Balkan in centre

Left bloc (Triple Alliance):
- Austria
- + Germany
- + Italy
- → Arrow pointing into the Balkan/Serbia square
- Slavic pop[ulation] label at bottom-left of square
Centre: Serbia (o-Serbia marked with circles representing Slavic pop) inside Balkan square
Right bloc (Triple Entente):
- Russia (box on right)
- + Serbia → [pan-Slavic state]
- + France
- + Britain
- Arrow ← pointing from right bloc into Balkan square

#8) Poisoning of Public Opinion by Newspapers

Fanned aggressive nationalism
Misrepresented situations & inflamed antagonism

#9) Immediate Cause

Murder of heir[apparent] Habsburg by a fanatic
- (connection with Serbia not proved)
- ↓
- Then Archduke of Franz Ferdinand & wife visited Bosnia
- ↓
- Murdered by a Serb
- ↓
- Austria regarded it as provocation
- ↓
- Made demands — rejected by Serbia
- ↓
- Vienna declared war

Immediate cause flowchart: murder of heir → Franz Ferdinand visit → murdered by Serb → Austria provoked → demands rejected → Vienna declared war

#World War I — Reasons for Defeat of Central Powers (Triple Alliance)

Failure of Schlieffen Plan
Allied power was stronger
A deadly blockade caused food shortages
German submarine campaign failed — brought US into the war — a big mistake
Entry of USA = new resources (food, arms) for Allied
Continuous wars → loss of best troops of Germany
Spread of an epidemic of deadly Spanish flu — it [was severe]
Defeat of Bulgaria → soldiers lost confidence

#World War I — Consequences

#Political

Disintegration of empire → emergence of nation states
Spread of democracy by US
Formation of the socialist state — Russia
Failure of democracy → dictatorships came up thereafter
Women voting rights
[Slow &] not uprooted colonialism
Treaty of Versailles, 1919
Formation of League of Nations
Labour reforms & rehab[ilitation] of refugees

Loss of life & property
Violence & insecurity became endemic in Europe
Old values/culture failed
Labour reforms
Race problem & under pop[ulation]
Calls for disarmament
Young gen[eration] wanted to forget events → partying & glorification
'Gay 20s' — gave rise to popular modes of singing

#Economic

Economy of powers affected
Industries destroyed
Due to need of warfare → new skills/methods developed → more prod[uction]
US became largest exporter of goods
Decline in farm prod[uction]
Prices shot up for all goods
Issue of paper currency → inflation
Western allies indebted to US
Unemp[loyment]
Food shortage + disease
↑ Industrial prod[uction]
Boost to scientific research
Faster means of communication

#WW1 — "Graveyard of Empires"

WW1 is often called the Graveyard of Empires:
- German © — Hohenzollern
- Austro-Hungarian — Habsburgs
- Russian — Romanov
- Ottoman — Caliphate

Venn Diagram — Causes of WW1

Venn diagram: Imperialism + Nationalism + Militarism overlap → WW1

Three overlapping circles:
- Imperialism (left circle)
- Nationalism (right circle)
- Militarism (bottom circle)
- Overlapping/intersection of all three → WW1 (boxed, arrow pointing right)

#World Between Two World Wars

Wilson's 14-point — a hopeful architect of world peace

#Paris Peace Conference [PPC]

Victor powers assembled in Paris
US Pres[ident] Woodrow Wilson, British PM David George [Lloyd George], French PM George Benjamin [Clemenceau]
Italian PM Orlando invited — ignored — left mid-way

#Clash of Interests at PPC

Clash of Interests table: US | Britain | France | Italy

US	Britain	France	Italy
To dominate European politics	To maintain balance of power	Completely security from Germany	Territorial gains promised to her
To destroy British naval power	Wanted to scale down reparations & thus received criticism	Comp[lete] disstr[uction] of Germany	—
Check rising Japan	Supremacy over naval powers	Alsace & Lorraine	—
Spread democracy	—	—	—

PPC was a conflict b/w [between] Idealism & Realism

#Treaty of Versailles

Signed in June 1919
Harsh treaty
Imposed on Germany w/o [without] its consultations
Ignored Wilson's 14 Points
No right of Self-Determination to German people

#Provisions

Germany was blamed as aggressor & forced to accept resp[onsibility] for the war — the War Guilt Clause
Pay $6600 mn as compensation
Coal mines under French control for 15 yrs
Poland given an outlet to Baltic Sea
German army ltd [limited] to 100,000
Germany's colonial possessions divided amongst victor powers
Alsace & Lorraine given to France
Not allowed to use tank by Germans
Rhineland was demilitarised
Germans called it a "dictated peace"
Germany could possess no submarines, no aircrafts, no heavy guns & build no fortifications

#Analysis of Treaty of Versailles

Marked by element of revenge
Unilateral & forcefully imposed
Failure of human intelligence & wisdom
Mish[mash] of both Idealism & Realism
Outcome of bargains & compromises b/w PM of France, Britain & US
Dictated peace
Redrew map of Europe
Constant humiliation for Weimar Republic
Wilson accepted Isolationist policy
Concessions were asked w/o reciprocity
Reflected hatred & vengeance of allies
Violated Wilson's 14-point
No reciprocity on colonial question
Principle of self-determination thrown to wind
The promise of new life & peace for which people shed blood didn't find a place in the Treaty
Compensation figure was astronomical
It sowed hatred, bitterness & resentment

#League of Nations

Obj[ectives]:
- Preserve peace
- Other issues — labour cond[itions], b/w human & drug traffic etc.

#Successes

Early 1920s — settled territorial dispute b/w Finland & Sweden (Åland Is[lands]), Iraq & Turkey over Mosul etc.
Combated Intl [International] opium trade
Alleviated refugee crises in Russia
Umbrella org[anisation] for ILO, Permanent Court of Intl Justice
Model for future UN

#Reasons for Failure

Many countries never joined — USA
- Germany & USSR were members only briefly (1926–33)
- Japan left after Manchurian crisis in 1933
No armed force, dependent on members for military support
Pacifist policy of Br[itain] & Fr[ance] → reluctance for sanctions & mil[itary] action
The IR [internal relations] of members' countries conflicted with League's req[uirement] for collective security
Unable to act quickly — met 4 times/yr + decision agreed by all

#World War II

aka Total War / Global War
WW-II was Hitler's personal war. In many senses.
- "He intended it, he prepared for it, he chose the moment for its launch & planned its course for 3 yrs."
Fought b/w 1939–45, b/w Allied & Axis power

#Causes / Factors

Severity of Treaty of Versailles
Failure of collective security system — League of Nations
Failure of Disarmament
World Economic crisis & rise of dictators
Spanish Civil War
Policy of Appeasement
Quest for security of France
Growing Militarism
Annexation of Ethiopia & Austria; Manchuria; Ethiopia [Abyssinia]
Lebensraum — Living space [Hitler's concept of German territorial expansion eastward]

#Policy of Appeasement

By Britain & France
Avoided war with aggressors like Japan, Italy & Germany
Gave away to all, if not very unreasonable
2 phases:
- a) Mid 1920 to 1937
  - War must be avoided at all cost
  - Accepted acts of aggression as breach of Treaty
- b) After 1937
  - British PM Chamberlaine gave a new drive
  - Wanted to find out what Hitler wanted & showed him they could be met by negotiation not war
Policy began with Dawes & Young Plan

Examples of Appeasement at Work

No action on German rearmament
Italy's annexation of Abyssinia
- Abyssinia was member of League
- Declared Italy as aggressor
- Application of sanctions by Britain & France (only half-hearted action)
France did not mobilise troops at German re-occupation of Rhineland
No intervention by Britain & France in Spanish War
Hitler's fanaticism for the Great German Reich made him annex Austria
- Britain's lack of action encouraged Hitler to make demands on Czechoslovakia & later Poland

Why Such Policy by Britain?

Belief that dictators could be pacified by meeting their demands
Anxiety of Treaty & guilt
Admiration of Hitler for rebuilding Germany after 1933 [post-Depression]
Feared bombing & wars
Remembered horrors of WW1

#Was Hitler to Blame for War?

Historians outside Germany generally agree to this
He attacked Poland on all fronts instead of Danzig
He breached the Munich Agreement
His motive was to remove stigma of WW1
Pact with Russia was simply a way of lulling Russian suspicions — he always hated it
He had his plan, his blueprint for action which means war was inevitable sooner or later
But sometimes it seems that Hitler had no intention of war. He believed that Poland & Russia were weak & would be knocked out by Blitzkrieg
German people were to blame as much as Hitler
- "Hitler was the creation of German history & German pressure. He would have counted for nothing w/o support of his people"

#Outcomes of the War

Defeat of Axis powers
Massive destruction
No all-inclusive peace settlement due to distrust b/w West & USSR
Social changes — refugees
End of European dominance over the world
Rise of nuclear weapons — change in techniques of warfare
Emergence of superpowers — US & USSR (Cold War)
Decolonisation
Formation of UNO
Development of Cold War
Rise of Third World countries
UN Declaration of Human Rights
Adverse impact on demographic ratio
Rise of regional org[anisations] — NATO, SEATO, Baghdad Pact
Switzerland, situated right in middle of Europe, remained neutral in both WHWs [World Wars] — Woah!
Balance of terror in place of balance of power

#Unification of Germany [1818–1919]

Holstein & Schleswig under Dutch control
Got unified in 1871

#[Pre-Unification Map Diagram]

Unification of Germany diagram: Austria/Prussia/France surrounding German oval, 1818–1919

Oval labelled Germany at centre-bottom
Inside oval:
- Austria (top)
- (Prussia) — written in brackets
- William I
- France (bottom)
Arrow/label: Holstein & Schleswig under Dutch control (top-right of page, in red)

#Factors

Role of Napoleon

Defeated Prussian & Austro-Prussian forces & established his rule
He amalgamated 300 states into 39
Est[ablished] free trade & means of communication
Spread[ed] the ideals of French Rev[olution] → inspired people → nationalism → unity

Role of Philosophers

Spread of ideas to awaken the nationals
Utilised conservative system of Metternich
Hegel & Herder highlighted problems of Germans & aroused irredentists
Glorified German language & culture
Inculcated confidence & love

Role of European Revolutions

Key role in eliminating Metternich system
Victory of nationalism, democracy & liberty
Inspired people

#Role of Zolleverein [Zollverein] — "Mighty lever of German unity"

A custom union formed in 1819
Leading member — Prussia
Believed in free trade & uniform tariff
Led economic development & unity
Its coal & iron policy → Industrialisation
Raised huge army due to economic dev[elopment]
- Prussia won battle with this army
Economic unity → political unity

#Role of Bismarck — The Process

Wanted a unified Germany but with Prussian dominance (conservative)

Bismarck's Blood & Iron policy flowchart — 3 wars to unification

Three-Column War Timeline:

| Austria + Prussia = ousted Denmark (1864) | Austria-Prussian war = ousted Austria (France + Prussia) → Battle of Sadova (1866) | Franco-Prussian war (1871) |

Bismarck's Blood & Iron Policy [detail]:

Duchies of Holstein & Schleswig — German pop[ulation]
- → Provoked Austria & attacked Denmark in 1864 (a naval power now)
Aroused popular revolt against Austria & promised Berlin/gains to France to make her neutral
- → Battle of Sadova in 1866, defeated Austria
Spanish throne vacant, proposed to distant relative of Prussian king; manipulated letter, provoked France due to humiliation, declared war against Prussia
- → Battle of Sedan, 1870
- → Unified Germany :D

#Bismarck as Chancellor (by King William I)

Policy of Blood & Iron
Military reforms
Clever like a fox & brave like a lion
Maker of Germany — Iron man
Fought socialism using repression & persuasion
State socialism was embarked upon by him — insurance for sickness/accident, old age pension, Sunday holiday
He wanted German union but not at the cost of Prussian monarchy, army or tradition
He opposed democracy
Governed state with a legal/tight budget
"More than military exploits of Russia, it was Bismarck, by his diplomacy, by his act of purchasing friends and dividing enemies, that had not only achieved German unity but had also won for Germany virtual hegemony over the continent."
He was like a juggler who keeps a no. of balls in the air at the same time — he could keep together mutually hostile powers (Austria vs Russia) & (Italy vs Austria) & succeeded in maintaining peace in his time

#Limitations of Bismarck

He was Germany & Germany was his creation. He was almost a dictator.
His laws were declared null & void by Catholics. He failed to create a German national church
His alliances and juggling could not stand the test of time
Voiced bitterness & hatred towards socialists
Differences with King William II rose & he was made to go home & resign from his office

#Unification of Italy

Most geographically fragmented state of Europe
Control of French, Austria & Pope

#[Pre-Unification Map Diagram]

Unification of Italy oval diagram showing all fragmented states

Oval labelled ITALY (underlined)
States labelled on top (outside oval, red): Lombardy, Venetia (Papal State [Papal States])
Duchies of Parma, Modena, Tuscany
Inside oval:
- Lombardy-Venetia → Austria (arrow right)
- Rome → Pope guarded by France (left label)
- Piedmont-Sardinia → Savoy dynasty (right label)
- Naples / South-Sicily → French (left label, arrow)
Southern part: south-Sicily; French controlling south

#Factors

Napoleonic reforms — reminded of glorious past & spread of nationalism
European Rev[olution] of 1830 & 1848 — 1st attempt toward unity
Mazzini — Young Italy
Cavour
Garibaldi
Emmanuel Victor

#Unification of Italy Was Not the Work of a Single Man!

#Role of Mazzini

Joseph Mazzini — revolutionary thinker & radical nationalist
Spiritual force of Italian union
Member of secret sos [society] Carbonari
Served an 'open letter' to Charles Albert urging him to give Piedmont const[itutional] govt, to lead a national movt & expel Austrians
Founded a society — Young Italy
Propaganda to educate people
Republican at heart
Saint of Italian Movt & prophet of Italian Union

Limitations of Mazzini

Was not very practical, only a theorist
His wishes for a federation with a stronger argument for unity

#Role of Giuseppe Garibaldi

Mentor of Young Italy
Fought 14 years for freedom of Spanish colonies
Followers were called as Red Shirts
Conducted successful guerrilla war against Austria
A daring captain capable of inspiring his followers with simple & passionate faith
Full of heroism, chivalry & romance
"He believed in Italy as saints believed in God"
It was because of him that many patriots accepted an alliance with French
Impressed by Cavour

Garibaldi's Campaign in Sicily & Naples

Aided in liberation of Sicily & proclaimed himself Dictator of Sicily — countered by Cavour & had to surrender
Advanced towards Naples — a triumphal march & people received him as a Second Christ
He marched alone, stood up, folded his arms & looked them straight on their faces — soldiers saluted him & no one dared to shoot
Naples was captured without firing a shot
Towards the end of his life, he reaffirmed his ardent Republicanism of his youth
"It was Garibaldi who cleft his way with his sword without which Cavour's diplomacy would have come to a halt."

#Role of Victor Emmanuel

King of Sardinia — ruled as constitutional head
A brave soldier, a perfect man with sound and independent judgement, a man of principle & loyal to his word
Followed counsel of his PM Cavour
Conflicted with him once but was 'wise' enough to appoint him as PM again

#Role of Cavour

Started his publication 'Resorgimento' [Risorgimento] — Rebirth
PM of Italy
A great statesman & diplomat
Realist & maker of modern Italy
Promoted prosperity of bourgeoisie
Carried out reforms like:
- → Free trade
- → Taxation reforms
- → Construction of roads, canals & railways
- → Separation of state & church

#Cavour's Diplomacy

Britain + France ← Crimean War, 1854 → Russia + Austria → Paris Peace Conference
- (Cavour was invited — finest hour of his life)
Cavour extended help [to Britain & France]
18,000 soldiers [sent by Cavour]
Thus received French help in ousting Austrians but only captured Lombardy
Significant role in foreign policy
Crimean War — explain his tactics
Crimean war was neither beneficial for France, nor Britain but was a boon for Italy
French had to leave mid-way; Cavour wanted to go alone but opposed by Victor Emmanuel — Cavour resigned & revolts in Modena, Parma & Tuscany happened. He returned & promised unity from south.
He influenced Garibaldi to attack South & paved for unity

#Final Unification — Franco-Prussian War Used

Final unification flowchart: Italy helped Prussia / Venice gained / Rome captured / Vatican City

Finally, Austro-Prussian war of 1866 & Franco-Prussian war of 1870 were used for unity:
- Left column: Italy helped Prussia, which in turn attacked Venetia from North. Italy [gained] from S[outh] — resulting into division of Austria
  - Prussia defeated; Austria and Italy annexed Venetia [illegible — partially cut]
- Right column: Attacked Rome & captured Papal state — state of Pope — now Pope was now Vatican City

Post-Independence History

Topper handwritten notes

#Legacy of the Indian National Movement (INM)

Inclusive, broad viewpoints
Non-violent character
Elite + masses both participated
Area of civil liberties, democratic org[anisation] & tolerance
"Liberty of press & liberty of speech give birth to a nation and nourish it" — TILAK
Accommodative approach
All-inclusiveness
- Mods [Moderates] support Tilak's RT [Right to] speech &
- Non-violent long tenure gave extensive support to Bhagat Singh
- Public Safety & Trade Disputes Bill to suppress Trade Unions were opposed by capitalists like G.D. Birla
Unity in diversity + nat[ional] integ[ration] = composite nat[ional] culture
Strong & self-reliant India
Secularism
Cons[traints]:
- No anti-caste ideology
- Partition
- Communal[ism] of [Indian] society

#Constitution

Federal with strong centre
- → to overcome problems of communal, caste, region[alism] through strong pol[itical] leadership
- → shape a single nation through one social, pol[itical] integ[ration]
A necessity, rather than a desire
Union of states

#Challenges Before Independent India

#Overview

Consolidation of I[ndia] and realisation of dream of true nationhood
Unity — race/caste/religion/culture/region diversity
Social & economic emancipation
Self-sufficiency — Socialism was set as a guiding light
- Socialism was not an ideological dogma but a broad guide to dev[elopment] & change
- Nehru — socialism/communism helps to divide wealth but we have no wealth? All you can divide is poverty
- So, it was not a blind ideological goal but accommodated a lot of other ideas
Nehruvian dev[elopment] strategy:
- → Planning
- → Public sector
- → Mixed Economy

#Early Challenges — Four-Column Table

Early Challenges — 4-column table (Social, Economic, Political, Admin)

Social:
- Language issues
- Communal harmony
- Casteism
- Secularism
- Social change
- UCC [Uniform Civil Code]
Economic:
- Rural dev[elopment]
- Inequality
- Poverty
- Land reforms
- Poor industrial base
- Lower per capita income
- Backwardness
- Dev[elopment] of S&T [Science & Technology]
Political:
- Consolidation of state
- Trust-building
- Participative representative democracy
- Federalism
- Independent FP [Foreign Policy]
Admin[istration]:
- Insurgency
- Refugee rehab[ilitation]
- Holding elections
- Continuance of civil services

Caste
Low literacy
Women status
No civil code
Polygamy
High expectations of people from their 'own govt'

#Tests of Democracy

Early wars with Pak[istan] & China
Emergency, death of leaders, communal flames
Linguistic violence, Dravida Mov[ement], secessionism
In NE, NE, LWE [Left Wing Extremism], failure of land reforms
Agrarian distress, elite capture of politics
Universal adult franchise to illiterate people
Vote bank politics etc.

Foreign experts argued that Green Revolution could turn into Red Revolution

#Linguistic Issues

#Background

1920s — INC promised [linguistic] provinces for major [language] groups after Independence but didn't honour it due to partition & parochial disruptions
Hindi = official lang[uage]; English = courts, services, inter-state common
An emotive issue → repercussions on promotion of culture & govt job opportunity + pol[itical] power accessibility
Divide over 2 lines:
- Hindi as official lang[uage]
- [Linguistic] ideology of states
No nat[ional] lang[uage] = multi-lingual India = Const[itution] 8th sch[edule]
Only Hindi & English had nation-wide reach:
- Hindi: obvious choice, as it was hybrid of many [language] groups, role in HHM [Hindi Heartland Movement]
- English: foreign roots so no!, symbol of Raj, language of oppression
Hindustani in Devanagari Script = symbol of past [civilisation] & [communal] sects
South said Hindi = lang with shallow history & literature = already in public ambit
Thus, gradual transition from English to Hindi by 1965

#Hindi Imposition Issue

Hindi speakers imposed it "using 'fanatic zeal' not mild persuasion" in '65
- → propaganda over dev[elopment] of lit[erature] & curiosity :/
- → No effort to simplify & rationalise Hindi
- → Sanskritised it to maintain purity
Translation of major works/laws + Central Hindi Bureaucratic etc = suspicion ↑ — open opposition
C. Rajagopalachari (S) opposed Ram Manohar Lohiya [Jan Sangh] = immediate imposition
Official Lang[uage] Act, 1963 = ↑ deadline of 1965 to allay South
M = Nehru died
Hindi = alternative lang in UPSC
→ Strong anti-[Hindi] movement (TN, 1965):
- DMK → 26 Jan = day of mourning
- Student agitations (self-immolation)
- Violent protests
- Mini resigned
Indira Gandhi visited Madras & reassured:
- Hindi + provincial lang in UPSC
- 3 lang formula
Official lang problem = SORTED by 1969

#Reorganisation of States

Fact: Congress promised [linguistic reorganisation] but postponed to address more urgent matters
- Dhar Comm[ission] (1948) × [rejected]
- JVP (1948) ×
- S&T [situation] ↑ — Telugu region of Andhra = ↑↑↑↑
- 1952 — Potti Sriramalu died (58-day fast) = Andhra created (no can bus!)
Fazl Ali Comm[ission] 1953 [SRC — States Reorganisation Commission] ✓
- But non-veg[etarians] of Bombay & Punjab
State Reorg[anisation] Act, 1956 = 14 states & 6 UTs

#Further Reorganisations

1960 — Gujarat & Bombay [split]
1966 — HP [Himachal Pradesh], Punjab, Haryana

#Evaluation of State Reorganisation

Didn't hamper fed[eralism] but consolidated it
Rational of map drawn arbitrarily by aliens
Lang = an emotive issue
No pol[itical] of lang since reorg[anisation]
Promoted better admin in homo[geneous] pol units
Strengthened (↑↑↑) nat[ional] unity
Acceptance of diversity
(−) Issue of minority lang is unresolved — more so for them (edu inst[itutions])
- - Comm[ission] of [linguistic] minorities
- → Tribal lang issue

#Tribal Integration

Heterogeneous community (>400)
Naga, Meena etc = assimilated
NE tribes = original culture retained
Isolation + exploitation
Forests = mainstay → taken away
Threat from missionaries
→ Uprisings
Nehru adopted a mid-way integrative approach:

"Tribal areas have to progress & progress in their own way."
→ Const[itution]:
- Art 46 (edu & eco dev[elopment])
- Sch VI
- Adl[itional] duties to Governor
- RT [Right to] property & free hand & residence curtailed in these areas
- State in [Schedule] reserved
- NCST + TAC [Tribal Advisory Council]
But no real dev[elopment] happened

#India–China War, 1962

#Background

Friends — both post-colonial rule + socialism
India supported China:
- Recognised it
- Korea war
- UNSC seat
- No severe objection on Tibet occupation
- Panchsheel
- Chinese leadership in Bandung Conference, 1955
Tibet refugees in India = angered China → border skirmishes → Massive attack on NEFA in 1962
India sought to help but China attacked voluntarily
→ blow to NAM & Panchsheel
Was not by a capitalist imperialist but a socialist friend

#Analysis

V1 = Nehru failed to foresee the development of 'forward policy' followed instead of sorting border issues → China attacked in self-defence policy
V2 = less military spending of India + focus on Indus[trial development] + need for secure neighbours
Asetyat [Assessment] = not naïve but developed in India or blinded; not but due to UNEXPECTED NATURE of war
- Not integrated approach as IAF not used much
- No civilian-military coordination
- Failure of logistics, of intelligence, of morale of military

#Also — India was waiting to make her presence felt globally

But suffered on many AfAs:
- Taiwan issue
- No UNSC seat
- US in Korea war
- Indo-China conflict
- Afro-Asian following India — friendship with US & USSR; not[hing] to isolate both US & USSR
→ China got isolated & frustrated
It was thus a result of China's own compulsions rather than aggressive posture of India or misjudgement of Nehru

#Shortcomings of Nehruvian Era

Didn't institutionalise its charisma
No participation of masses except voting
Unreformed civil services
Overlooked emerging evils like corruption, bureaucratisation
No steps for caste system, male dominance
Edu system couldn't reach masses
No active pol[itical] struggle against communalism
Poor implementation of land reforms
Strong party divisions

#Major Events — Era-wise Timeline

#Shastri Era

Pak[istan] War [1965]
US [relations]
Initiation of Green Rev[olution]
PMO [Prime Minister's Office established]
Tashkent Declaration

#Indira Era

PL 480 Programme of US
Devaluation of INR
Food shortage + inflation ↑↑↑
Downgrade of Part[y]
Congress — defeat in states
New era of coalition & defections
(Downward by Lohia — Goongi Gudiya)

#Indira Gandhi Era — Key Events & Policies

#10-Point Programme of Congress, 1967

Eat[ing] of lantana [illegible — possible "eating of tanks" or agricultural reference]
Ceiling on urban property & monopolies
PDS [Public Distribution System]
Land reforms implementation
Abolition of privy purse
Split in Congress — Congress (R) = Requisitionists (R) = Congress [exists today] / (O) = organisation

#Land Ceiling & Bank Nationalisation

MRTP Act, 1969 [Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices]
Land ceiling
Garibi Hatao slogan (Grand Alliance for 'Sridha Hatao' is countered with Garibi Hatao)

#Bangladesh Crisis

Friendship Treaty with USSR
Shimla Agreement, 1972
Nationalisation of Insurance & Coal Industry, 1972
Rural Unemployment Guarantee Scheme
Fairer Inclusion Programme
24th CAA [Constitutional Amendment Act] — power to amend FR [Fundamental Rights]
25th [CAA] — compensation for land acquisition

#Other Events

1974 Pokhran Test — Smiling Buddha
JP Movement, 1974 → Total Rev[olution]/Sampoorna Kranti
1973 Oil Shock
Railway strike of '74
1975 Allahabad HC = petition by Raj Narain; [declared her] corrupt in elect[ions] so HC has invalid[ated her]:
- → Resign, no tax payment, make govt impossible
- ↓ National Emergency, 1975
Defence of India Act
MISA [Maintenance of Internal Security Act]
42nd CAA, 1976
20-point prog[ramme] for economy

#JP Movement (Jayaprakash Narayan)

JP Movement and Indo-SL Accord two-column layout

Due to high inflation in 1970s, unemployment, 40 essential supplies [shortage]
Obj[ectives]:
- Corruption ×
- Defence of democracy
- Safeguarding demo[cratic] inst[itutions]
- Federal[ism]
- Party-less demo[cracy]
- Eliminate poverty
Social — Sarvodaya
Eco[nomic] — black money, [reduce] inflation, unemployment
'Limits' — TR against demo ethics & elections
- Extra constitutional means
- No common min[imum] agenda
- Urban & middle class [driven]

#Indo-Sri Lanka Accord, 1987

Rajiv–Jayawardhane Accord
Features — joint action to settle Tamil ethnic conflict
SL permitted N & E [North & East] province to form 1 admin unit
IIPKF [Indian Peace Keeping Force] stationed in SL
Military not to be used for harming each other
SL promised official status for Tamil lang[uage]
→ 13th Amendment to enforce it
(In 2010, promised to go beyond 13th A, to Kla [Colombo] 13+)
Unfinished as:
- → India didn't devolve even basic autonomy
- [Press Rule] if mismanaged → can be declared void by court
- Prabhakaran not committed

#Impact of Indo-SL Accord

↑ in milk production
Poverty alleviation
Farmers income ↑
Inclusive growth
Women empowerment
Dev[elopment] of other coops [cooperatives]
Income insurance
Nutritional security

#Operation Flood (White Revolution)

AKA Billion Litre Idea
By NDDB in 1970s to create a nationwide milk grid
To replicate 'Amand pattern' [Anand Pattern]
Aims:
- ↑ milk production
- Eliminate middlemen
- Regular income for producers

#Phases

P1: 1970–80 — financed by sale of skimmed milk powder/butter oil donated under WFP [World Food Programme]
P2: 1981–85 — milk sheds from 18 to 136; 43,000 coops across country; major cities; new self-sustaining model: cities
P3: 1985–96 — ↑↑↑ infra, vet services; artificial insem[ination] edu; added 30,000 new coops; expanded new to many more

#Facts

India's CAGR in milk @ 5% global @ 2%
Largest milk producer for last 20 years

#Morarji Desai (Janata Party Era)

44th CAA [Constitutional Amendment Act]
Decent planning
Subsidies in agri
Industry → rural sector
Food for work programme = rural employment
Genuine NAM in FP [Foreign Policy]

#Emergency (1975–77) — Evaluation

Shah Commission for 'excesses' during Emergency — bureaucracy when asked to bend, started crawling

#Evaluation of Emergency

Govt had routine power to deal with the issues
Threat was not to nation's unity / integrity but to ruling party EROM [?]
Misuse of constitutional provisions meant to save country for saving personal power
Restoration of democracy within a short span of time = India always prevails in [democracy]
Made way to amendments on FR [Fundamental Rights] provisions
More aware of value of civil liberties
Police [and] bureaucracy [issues]

#Rajiv Gandhi Era

6 tech missions (Sam Pitroda):
- ↑ Drinking Water Mission
- ↑ Literacy Mission
- ↑ Immunisation
- ↑ White Rev[olution]
- ↑ Edible Oil Mission
- ↑ Rural Telephony Mission
Panchayati Raj [73rd Amendment]
PRI [Panchayati Raj Institutions]
Liberal[isation]
Jawahar Grameen Yojana
Operation Blackboard
- ↑ Navodaya Vidyalayas
Women empowerment
M/o Environment
Ganga Cleaning Project
Anti-defection law; additional — consumer courts
Extensive tours for FP [Foreign Policy]
Delhi Decl[aration] 1986 — nuclear disarmament
Sri Lanka Crisis (1985)
Modernisation of defence + scams like Bofors scam, HDW scan
Shah Bano Case, 1987

#V.P. Singh — Mandal Commission, 1990

#Narasimha Rao — LPG Reforms; Hawala Scandal

#Deve Gowda

#I.K. Gujral

#UPA Era — Key Legislation

2005 — RTI [Right to Information], MNREGA [Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act], Domestic Violence Act
RTE 2009 [Right to Education]

#Scientists of Independent India

Scientists table — Homi Bhabha and Vikram Sarabhai (left) + Shimla Agreement and India-China 1962 (right)

#Homi J. Bhabha

Nuclear physicist
Established TIFR [Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]
- AKA Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay
F/o [Father of] India's Nuclear Programme (3-stage)
Bhabha Scattering
- Problem of scattering positrons by electrons
3-stage nuclear programme to use thorium reserves

#Vikram Sarabhai

Scientist, physicist, astronomer
PRL [Physical Research Laboratory] in 1947
1962 me [in] INCOSPAR → ISRO
Set 1st satellite: Aryabhatta
Established many inst[itutions] like IIM-A
And Textile Industry Research Asso[ciation] (ATIRA)
Fast Breeder Test Reactor, Kalpakkam
ECIL, Hyderabad

#Satish Dhawan

Initiated the Tikhka model [Tilak model]
Space comm[ission] — PM to be headed by:
- DOS — Govt
- ISRO — [statutory] body (same inst[itution])
Sat building (Aryabhatta, Bhaskar)
Dev[elopment] of liquid engine tech (…vikas)
Amalgamation of NAIR, Remote Sensing in ISRO
RESPOND programme for R&D & collab[oration]
Nurtured future leaders like APJ Kalam

#Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar

FIO [?] Research Labs → 1st DG of CSIR
Improved crude oil drilling procedure
Magnetochemistry — Chem Professor (1948)
Industrial chemistry — bagasse → food cake (ash); established 12 Chem labs — pure on his name
Sun Tzu — Best way to win a war is to prepare

#Shimla Agreement, 1972

After 1971 war for:
- Withdrawal of troops
- Exchange of PoW [Prisoners of War]
- Stop conflict & confrontation
- → Establish durable peace, friendship & cooperation
Mutually Agreed Principles:
- a) Respect Territorial sovereignty
- b) Non-interference
- c) Peaceful resolution through bilateral negotiation
- d) LoC in J&K
"India won the war, but lost on diplomatic table."

Shimla Agreement + India-China 1962 War analysis (lower half of p12)

#India–China War, 1962 — Detailed Analysis

In Aksai Chin & NEFA, resulting into India's defeat

#1) Bilateral Issues

Refusal to accept McMahon Line in East
Strategic road through Aksai Chin
Asylum to Dalai Lama, 1959
Forward Policy of India

#2) Domestic Pressure

Largest man-made starvation due to Great Leap Forward
Tibetan uprising
Dissent in CCP — wanted to establish supremacy

#3) International Pressure

China had good relations with both US & USSR; China was alone & isolated
Afro-Asian countries followed India's example
Making its presence felt globally

#Lessons

Defence preparedness & hard power
Realism, not Idealism
Border infra
Strong allies e.g. QUAD
Intelligence (RAW created)
Prepare for 2 front war

Sun Tzu — "Best way to win a war is to prepare"

Indian Society

Topper handwritten notes

#Unity (Sense of Oneness)

Unity tree diagram: based on Similarity and Interdependence

Unity = sense of oneness; based on:
- Similarity → traditional [trad'] societies
- Interdependence → modern societies

#Bonds of Unity in India

#1. Geographical Factor — Geo-political Unity

Him [Himalayas] in N [North]; oceans on 3 sides; single citizenship; similar pol [political] culture; ditto [same] ethos etc.

#2. Geo-cultural

Temple culture / rivers etc. to encourage pilgrimage (4 dham yatra [four abodes pilgrimage])
Cultural → Religion

a) Intra-religious Unity

Intra-religious unity: Hinduism circle with sects/cults/mada unified by teachings of scriptures

Hinduism: sects / cults / mada → unified by teachings of scriptures
All religions encourage peace, harmony, universal brotherhood
All religious aim to attain salvation
- Hinduism → Moksha
- Islam → Jannat
- → Salvation

b) Caste — unified through eco [economic] coop [cooperation] or the erstwhile zamani [zamindari/jajmani] system

Social status in society is also a unifying factor
- Eg: all SCs [Scheduled Castes] retaliate in unison against dilution in SC/ST Act → social cohesion
Within linguistic diversity, SKT [Sanskrit] & English → unity

#3. Regional —

Horizontal unity

Regional horizontal unity: two regions with B/K/V/S hierarchy unified by common lang (vertical unity); eg. Pak unified horizontally by religion

Unified by a common lang [language] (vertical unity)
- Region 1: B / K / V / S
- Region 2: B / K / V / S
Eg: Ek-wPak [erstwhile Pakistan] united horizontally by religion

#4. Miscellaneous

Epics like Mb [Mahabharata] / Ramayana bring content bridge [bridging] unity — retold in regional lang [language] diversity
Krishna legend inspired most of classical dance of India eg: Kathak, Bharatnatyam etc
Broad features of trad' [traditional] Hindu society — Purusharthas, Dharma, Varna, Karma theory
Modern edu [education]; social media; sports; patriotism; corporate culture; Bollywood [Bollywood]; Mela [fairs] → Music & dance

#Basic Attributes of Society

Definite history
Region
Common culture
Independent existence (culture etc.)

India doesn't have ③ so it can be better called an amalgamation of a different / multiple society.

NARA — National Ambition, Regional Aspiration by PM Modi in 2019

#Unity in Diversity

Left diagram: Unity in diversity — Venn-type overlapping circles
Right diagram: Diversity in unity — varied shapes coexisting in one frame

#Linguistic Diversity

Extremely diverse (22 scheduled lang [languages]); 104 major lang with 1562 dialects and 6 classical lang
Acted as a threat to diversity till 1947–67:
- Official lang issue
- Linguistic reorg [reorganisation] of states
Both these issues were solved by 1967 as a no more a threat
Contributes to nat [national] unity — Punjabi songs, Baahubali dubbed into regional lang; Hindi (works in entire country); Sanskrit as a source of all major lang

#Why Sons of Soil [Nativism] only in MH [Maharashtra], KN [Karnataka], NE [Northeast] not other areas?

→ no outmigration culture as in UP, PB [Punjab]
→ comp [competition] for middle class jobs
- Eg: Kerala no outmigration to Gulf — sometimes → people invested in land → influx of labour; but when global slowdown & migrants returned, no clashes as they were not looking for labour [jobs]
→ use by regional parties
→ feeling of relative deprivation

#Ghost Citizen

A person who is a citizen of a country but can't enjoy the benefits of it
Eg: prostitutes, women, migrants etc.
Eg: Ramdan Hingabulshem vs Gyan Khant Rustle [illegible — case name]

#Salient Features of Indian Society

#Characteristics of Indian Society:

Multi-ethnic
Multi-lingual
Multi-class
Patriarchal
Unity in diversity
Coexistence of traditionalism & modernity
Balance b/w [between] spiritualism & materialism
Balance b/w individualism & collectivism
Blood & kinship ties

#Features of Indian Society

#1. Caste System

→ hereditary endogamous group having a common name, traditional occupation, common culture & rigid rules of mobility
→ mainly associated with Hinduism
→ segmental division of society
→ hierarchy
→ endogamy
→ untouchability

Caste pyramid: Brahmin (top) → Kshatriya → Vaishya → Sudra → Untouchables (base)

Caste hierarchy (top to bottom):
- Brahmin
- Kshatriya
- Vaishya
- Sudra
- Untouchables

1.1 Changes in Caste System

Trends for inter-caste marriage
Challenging to orthodoxy
New food habits
Changes in occupation
Improvement to lower caste
Occupation of high posts (Reservation u/a [under Article] 15(4))
Ted [Targeted] violence esp against women
Manual scavenging

#Factors Affecting These Changes:

Sanskritisation
Westernisation
Modernisation
Industrialisation & urbanisation
Democratic Decentralisation
Caste & politics
Legislative measures

#2. Religious Pluralism

#3. Kinship, Marriage & Familitarian Bonds

Consanguineous — blood rel [relations]
Affinal — marriage
→ North & South India

#Recent Changes in Marriage System (Intercaste Love)

Aims & purpose — from dharma to life long companionship
Form — monogamy dominates
Age — post puberty to 18 to 21
Indulgence & desertion cases — single parents ↑
Live-in relationships
Pomp & show — less ritualistic, more celebrations

#Family

#Characteristics:

Basic, infinite & enduring group
Smaller in size compared to other social groups
2001 census: out of 193m [million] HH [households], 7.98 cr [crore] or 51.7% were nuclear HH
In 2011 census the share grew to 52.1%
- → 52% nuclear family

#Framework for Impact of Global / Modern / Western on Any Institution

Should not be +ve [positive] or -ve [negative] impacts
It can be studied under: family → Structure, Functions, Interpersonal relations

Framework tree: family → Structure / Functions / Interpersonal relations

#Types of Family

Marriage (conjugal / [illegible])
Size/Structure:
- Nuclear
- Joint
Descent:
- Patrilineal
- Matrilineal
Residence:
- Patrilocal
- Matrilocal
- Bilocal
- Neolocal
Authority:
- Patriarchal
- Matriarchal
- → Skewed sex ratio → ↑ in instances of polygandrous [polyandrous] marriage

#Functions of a Family

Primary (boxed):

Part in rearing of child
Prevention of anomie [suicide]
Instrument of cultural transmission
Agent of socialisation
Status of ascending f" [function]
Agency of social control (suicide, delinquency)
Agency of social insurance (old age/home)

Secondary (boxed):

Economic
Educational
Religious
Recreational

#Structural & Functional Changes in Indian Family System:

Change in family
Factory employment
Influence of urbanisation
Legislative measures
Change in marriage system
Influence of western values
Changes in position of women

#4. Unity in Diversity

Distinction = differences + inequalities
Unity ≠ uniformity & diversity ≠ fragmentation (boxed)
→ religious diversity
→ linguistic
→ racial
→ caste
→ cultural
→ geographical

#Communalism

A phenomenon of religious diff [differences] b/w [between] groups that often leads to tensions b/w them. A man of religion is not communal but a man who practises politics by linking it with religion is communal. Hence we can define communalism as pol [politics] trade in religion.

3 stage — mild, moderate & extreme
→ multifaceted process based on Orthodoxy & Intolerance
→ propagate intense dislike of other religions
→ elimination of other rel [religious] & its values
→ adopts extremist attacks
→ exclusive in outlook
→ religious chauvinism

#Factors

Historical:
- British policies
- 2-nation theory
Political:
- Religion based politics; swaying people for votes
Economic:
- Eco deprivation; coincide with religious identities
Social:
- Diff [difference] in values like beef consumption, Hindu-Muslim conversion, cow vigilantes

#Reasons for Persistence of Communalism:

Slow dev [development] of economy
Incapable cultural synthesis
Perceived / relative deprivation
Regional / racial imbalance
Pol [political] mobilisation

#Measures to Address Communalism:

Foster a secular culture — celebrating all festivals etc
Swift & prompt response to radicalization
Refrain pol parties from using religion
Media should be sanitised & stopped from escalating cases esp of love jihad
Strict action against mob violence
Stern laws to be formulated by Parl [Parliament]
Special courts for speedy justice
Legal reforms & greater accountability of police in handling each case
Encouraging pluralistic settlements
Sachar Committee recommendation of creating an Equal Opportunity Court for Muslims should be implemented
Secular edu = de-communalization of history edu
Skilling members of minority communities to reduce economic disparities
Role of religious leaders
Uniform Civil Code
Use of media, movies etc to promote religious harmony
Ghettoization = concentration of a community in certain areas. Eg: NE exodus from Bangalore, Godhra 2002, Sikhs in Delhi after 1986 etc.
ECI — any communal flavouring in election speech = ground for disqual [disqualification]

#Types of Communalism:

Assimilation — eg Hindu Code Bill (no Hindu/Sikh/Buddhist gains) — not a threat (noted)
Welfare of Jain scholarships
Retractist — don't participate in politics — eg: Bahai faith of Islam
Retaliatory — Hindu-Muslim — Threat (noted)
Separatist — Punjab
Secessionist — Khalistan

#Regionalism

A phenomenon in which people's political loyalties are based upon a region. It is rooted in Indian diversity of language, culture, tribe & religion & their geographical concentration.

→ conditioned by eco, social & politico-cultural disparities
→ a psychic phenomenon
→ built around group identity
→ exclusion of other people from taking benefits in a region

A pre-Independence phenomenon, which became predominant in the post-Independence period due to the following reasons:

Democratic gov → all parts wanted benefits in the process → competition → regionalism
Integration of princely states → people nursed loyalties to their old territorial units & princes (*)
Reorg [reorganisation] of states on linguistic basis
Personal & selfish ends of politicians

#Bases of Regionalism

Geographical (*):
- NE
- Vidarbha — History, folklore, cultural heritage, myths & symbolism
- Eg: Dr. DM, Shiv Sena, 'TB' [illegible]
- Language — AP [Andhra Pradesh]
- Caste — TN [Tamil Nadu] (Mulk/Kashmiri [illegible])
- Religion — Khalistan
Historical & Social:
- Folklore, cultural heritage, myths & symbolism
Economic (most imp [important] factor):
- → D2 [demand for] resources
- Eg: Redland [Telangana], UK [Uttarakhand] out of UP, Jharkhand
- Economic deprivation fuels it
- Economic prosperity — they think they can survive independently
- Eg: Khalistan did strengthen after Green Rev [Revolution] in PB [Punjab]
Politico-admin [Political-administrative]:
- Accelerates if not attended
- Eg: converts rights led to delay of [illegible] language
- Expenditures divert on this
Recent Eg: Gorkhaland demand

#Forms of Regionalism:

Demand for state autonomy — Nagaland socialist conference, Mizo National Front etc
Supra state regionalism — more than one state is involved; Eg: North-South divide in India; groupings of NE states vs mainland on issue of Hindi imperialism
Inter-state regionalism — eg river water disputes; changing; Eg: Vidarbha in MH [Maharashtra], Saurashtra in GUJ [Gujarat], Telangana in AP, Bagath [Baghelkhand] in MP etc; Gorkhaland [in W.Bengal]
Son of soil theory — reservation of Marathi in MH, Delhi college 25% etc.

#Positive Impacts:

Inter-group solidarity
A source of identity in the world of "ting global"
Induce competition → better promotion → economic dev [development]
Renews federalism → Rep [Representation] democracy → fulfilll pol [political] aspirations

#Negative Impacts: (diff [difficult] to bring reforms eg [illegible])

Hampers rational integration — "Ek Bharat, Shreshtha Bharat" [One India, Best India]
Used for political gains
Unbalanced dev → to curb it, regionalism
Disturbs law & order, violence etc
Gives a leeway to external factors eg: terrorism, extremism (national security)
Federal & nat [national] foreign policy — Eg: India involvement in Sri Lanka due to Tamil issue

#Is Regionalism a Threat to NI [National Integration]?

No — both R&N [Regionalism & Nationalism] can exist together in creative partnership. Both are in favour of dev [development]. It can make federalism a greater success & will reduce the centralising tendencies in a nation
Should not be seen as crisis of unity but as crisis of dev [development]
Either can be tackled through balanced growth, decentralisation, grass roots democracy & strengthening multicultural values

#Crime Against Women

Criminal Violence: rape, murder, abduction
Domestic Violence: dowry, molestation, rape, maltreatment, abandonment
Social Violence: female foeticide; live-in healthy property rights denied
Types: Physical → Sexual → Emotional → Financial

Caring & nurturing — domestic division of labour
Soft skills — pink-collared jobs
Emotional & lack rational DM [decision making] — glass ceiling
Domestic resp [responsibility] — dual burden
Weak, passive, dependent — violence

Acc [According] to UN, women empowerment has 5 dimensions:
1. Sense of self worth
2. Access to Resources — socio, pol [political], eco [economic]
3. Mobility to make decisions
4. Control over their lives
5. Ability to influence the direction of social change

#Children Issues

UNCRC [UN Convention on the Rights of the Child] — 18 yrs — In India:
- Child Labour Act < 14
- JJA [Juvenile Justice Act] < 16 to 18
- POCSO [Protection of Children from Sexual Offences] < 18
- Factories Act < 15
Rights → RT [Right to] survival; edu [education]; development; protect[ion]; participation; health & nutrition
→ India formulated Nat [National] Child Policy 2013 (13 key [illegible] satisfied)
NCRAG [Nat [National] Coord[ination] Action Group] for monitoring it
Gurupadsamy Report (1979) → ① pe aya child labour act, 1986 had said that till the time poverty exists in India child labour can never be eliminated

#Issues:

Child abuse (#3 children have faced — MoWCD [Ministry of Women & Child Development]) — causes: socio, psychic
Child labour
Child marriage (2011 census — 30% of all women married before 18)
⟳ Updated fact stat
As in notes30% of all women married before 18 (Census 2011)
Now23.3% of women aged 20–24 married before 18 (NFHS-5, 2019–21) (as of 2021)
NFHS-5 (2019-21) is the latest authoritative survey; child marriage prevalence fell from 47.4% (2005-06) to 26.8% (2015-16) to 23.3% (2019-21). Census 2011 figure was a different measure.
Source: Child Marriage in India: Key Insights from the NFHS-5 — UNFPA India
Juvenile delinquency
Bal Panchayat
Acc [According] to Thomson Reuters Survey, India is the most dangerous country in the world for women.
33,601 no. 1 in child rape cases in 2010–14 — NCRB
Child Labour Prohibit Act, 2016:
- < 14: banned except [family enterprise, audio visual (except circus)]
- 14–15: allowed except prohibited industry [mines, hazardous process, inflammable sub]
- (list editable by G [Govt] info ①)
PMMVY [Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana] → Rehab [rehabilitation]
Child & Adolescent Fund
(−ve): <14 supposed to study — dual burden → no diff [difference] of family enterprise = misuse → discourages secondary edu by allowing 14–15 → prohibited industry ↑ from 23 to 3 into further editable → no mobility for the fund

#Women's Movement

Genesis in Indian Freedom Struggle (MH [Maharashtra] stuff)

Post-Independence: 2 defining moments

Women's Movement: 2 defining moments — (1) Committee on Status of Women of India (CSWI) Report 'Towards Equality' → compelling debates in Parl (before Emergency); (2) Press sensitivity to issues like dowry deaths, rapes etc → transformed consciousness

Moment 1: Committee on Status of Women of India (CSWI) Report — Towards Equality → compelling debates in Parl [Parliament] (before Emergency)
Moment 2: Press sensitivity to issues like dowry deaths, rapes etc → transformed consciousness
1980s = period of org [organisation] building & alliances / coalitions

#Issues Raised:

Dalit women (Nat [National] Fed [Federation] of Dalit Women in 1987):
- Socio/eco/pol justice
- Rising sexual violence by upper caste
- Caste-based discrimination — state trust (police)
Environmental / Green Mont [Movement] (Chipko etc.)
Tribal Women
Anti-alcohol (Guj [Gujarat] Nav Nirman Andolan [movement])
Change in agenda due to Global:
- Women reservation bill in 91 & Parl [Parliament]
- Reproductive rights incl alternate sexualities
- Financial rights / property rights
- Workplace harassment (#MeToo)
- Climate change & women
- Campaign for reforms in family law (UCC [Uniform Civil Code])
- Dress code in public

#Phases of Women's Movement

Bhakti marg [path] saints like Mirabai, Andal talked about equality — crude form
But in true sense, started after British arrival
Colonial period movement

Phase 1:

Led by Educated Men
Influenced by ideas of equality & emancipation
Eg: Brahmo Samaj under RMK [Ram Mohan Roy], KC Sen [Keshab Chandra Sen], ICY [Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar] etc.
Issues like women edu [education]; practices like sati, widow remarriage etc
Efforts by Islamic community — Syed Ahmad Khan; Begum of Bhopal organised Al Muslim Women's Conference in 1916

Phase 2:

Led by women themselves (post 1905)
Women cause linked with Swaraj
Role in INM [Indian National Movement]
Gandhiji pushed for it
Eg: Sarojini Naidu, Kamla Nehru, Hansa Mehta, Rani Gaidinliu [illegible — last name uncertain]
But limited to urban, educated women
Demands:
- Equal voting rights (Annie Besant)
- Reformation of personal laws (age of marriage)
- Banning social evils like purdah system
Orgs [organisations] like Women India Asso [Association] (1917), NCWI [National Council of Women in India], AIWC [All India Women's Conference]

COMMON ENEMY + COMMON GOAL (boxed)

#Post-Independence Women's Movement

#Weakened as:

No common enemy
Built on nat [national] leaders
Women leaders joined pol [political] parties
Complacent due to const [constitutional] prov [provisions], social laws etc.
(Women withdrew from public life)

→ Rejuvenation of women's movement
- UN Decade of Women (1975–85)
- CSWI Towards Equality Report

#Major Movements:

i) Pol [Political] Movt — All India Democratic Women Asso [Association] (AIDWA) in 1981 (part of CPI)

Dalit feminism (Mahila Samta Sainik Dal)
Events like Shah Bano case gave pol [political] rallying points

ii) Non-Govtal [Non-Governmental] Movt — led by auto [autonomous] women org [organisations]

Adopted protest policies
Eg: 1972 SEWA [Self Employed Women's Association] by Ela Bhatt
Progressive org [organisation] of women (1974); Hyd [Hyderabad] for removing sexual dev [division] of labour

iii) Issue Based Movt — anti-dowry, anti-rape

Anti-sati (in 1987 new married Rajput widows Roop Kanwar was made sati on Sikar, Raj [Rajasthan])

#Women's Movement & Feminist Strands (contd. from Part 1)

#Issues Addressed by Women's Movements

Alcoholism
Domestic violence
Eco [Ecological] feminism — Narmada Bachao & Medha Patkar

#Consequences / Outcomes

Separate Ministry [for Women & Child Development]
33+ [33%] reservation in PRIs [Panchayati Raj Institutions]
Progressive laws like:
- Domestic Violence Act, 2005
- Indecent Representation Act
- POSH Act, 2013
- Maternity Benefit [Act]
Gender Budgeting
Nat'l [National] Comm'n [Commission] for Women
Inheritance rights in Mitakshara Hindu Law
Efforts by corporates:
- eg: Zomato recently announced 10-day of menstrual leaves for women ee [employees]
- (CORPORATE FEMINISM)

#"Personal is Political"

Map of Women's Movements in India — key organisations by state

Map showing Women's Movements in India:
- Saheli (Delhi)
- Sampoorna Kranti (Bihar)
- Nav Nirman Andolan (Gujarat [Guj])
- Progressive Org'n [Organisation] of Women (Hyderabad [Hyd])
- Anti Attack Mov't [Movement] (South India)
- Box label: Women Mov't in India

#Prevention of Sexual Harassment Act, 2013 (POSH)

It clearly defines SH [Sexual Harassment], Aggrieved women & Workplace; applicable to both — formal & informal
- ICC [Internal Complaints Committee] — a local comp't [competent] comm'n [commission] chaired by woman, 50% members women
Complaint filed within 3m [months] of incident
ICC has power of civil court
Enquiry to be done in 3m [months]
Prov'n [Provision] of counter conte [conte = counter] in case of false complaints
Non cognizable, bailable offence
Mandatory for ee [employer] to estb [establish] ICC; penalty of ₹50,000
Not gender neutral

#Domestic Violence Act, 2005

In the backdrop of growing misuse of this Act, it is termed as 'New Legal Terrorism' by SC [Supreme Court]
DV [Domestic Violence] is defined as:
- Actual abuse
- Threat of abuse
It is verbal, physical, sexual, emotional, financial abuse
Not gender neutral
Women live in partner / wife / mother / sister / widow / single women / divorced wife
It's a civil law which deals with secure housing, custody of child, compensation
But becomes a crim'l [criminal] law in 1 matter — RT [Right to] protection
Recently, the Act was amended to remove the term 'Adult Male' so as to make it gender neutral. However there are some concerns:
- Will encourage husbands to file counter cases
- An apprehension that about putting juveniles under the Act
- Since relief is only final & can be claimed only against adult

#Dowry

NCRB data — highest dowry deaths in UP [Uttar Pradesh] followed by Bihar
Considered main cause for skewed sex ratio
Causes:
- Acceptance of dowry culture by both men & women
- Culture of consumerism
- Give & take culture (considered an inv't [investment])
- Lack of eye witness
- Delay in justice as dowry related accidents are projected as kitchen accidents
304B & 498A deal with dowry in IPC
- 498A deals with crimes committed both by husband & in-laws. It was cognizable, non-bailable & non-compoundable in law. It was cognizable & non bailable & non bailable but recovery if dowry items will not be basis for denying bail & parties can go for out of court settlement if they approach HC
Problem of dowry can be addressed if there is attitudinal changes:
- Mass marriage
- Adarsh marriage by well-off peo[ple]

#Juvenile Delinquency

"A child who has not attained a certain age at which he can be held liable for his criminal acts"
JD = anti-social / criminal act of the child which violates the law
- 11lc [11 lakh] crimes are committed by JD today
- 50% of such JD cases were against women
- JD cases have constantly ↑ during last 5yrs

#Causes

Poverty
Family disintegration (at JF [Joint Family])
Social media → peer culture
Neighbourhood
Mental health
Virtual world
Substance abuse
Peer group (–ve [negative] influence group)
Corruption of value system — Global? no value edu'n [education]
Mostly a socially mfg'd [manufactured] act → Ashish Nandi
- Labelling theory

#JJ Act, 2015

Sec 379 of BPC [CrPC] — offenders below age of 15 could be sent to Reformatory Schools estd [established] by SG [State Government]

#Reducing the Age of JDs?

Yes/No comparison table on reducing age of Juvenile Delinquents

Yes	No
Steep rise in serious crimes	Not the sole resp [responsibility] of child but also family, society
Proven deterrant effect	State failure to give them a normal childhood
JDs are with full knowledge / maturity but escape punishment	Reformatory justice
	More toughened criminal after spending yrs in jail

→ Juvenility should be decided on the basis of state of mind & not state of body solely
Child guidance agencies
UN Declaration of Rights of the Child
Implications → Ind'l [Individual] / family / society / nation

#Indian Urbanisation

India Urbanisation — Under-U vs Over-U diagram

Under U [Urbanisation]:
- At pan I [Pan India] level
- Rural pop'n [population] > urban
Over U [Urbanisation]:
- No uniform urban [growth]
- 2/3rd urban pop'n in few urban agglomerations
Caste dichotomy in urban areas:
- Workplace → class
- Domestic → caste
Urban labourers commit max suicides

#Urban Areas Dichotomy

Urban Areas
- Dichotomy:
  - [Positive side]:
    - Star Dynamism
    - Centre of Innov'n [Innovation]
    - Cultural Diversity
    - Economic growth
  - [Negative side]:
    - Smoke & squalor
    - Overcrowding
    - Crimes & violence
    - Isolation
Liveability Index (2019) — N Delhi (118/140), Mumbai (119/140)

#Marginal Man

A city dweller while living amidst a sea of fellow city dwellers & detached from them socially
- "acute isolation due to social rejection"
Residential segregation
Pockets of diff [different] groups — based on social status / profession etc; do not mix with others
Urban pandemics

#1. Family & Kinship

Loss of bonds; nuclear due to migration
Caste system tends to diminish, but not complete elimination; it often co-exists with class (Caste-Class nexus)
Women empowerment — but also crimes & all

#Problems of Urbanisation

"ToI [Times of India]: I live in sub std [sub-standard] house"

1. Housing & Inflated Land Prices

SS [Supply Side] factors contributing to artificially high prices:
- As a legacy of Urban Land Ceilings Regulation Act, 1976; large chunks of vacant land have disappeared from land mkt [market]
- Many Govt PSEs [Public Sector Enterprises] occupy huge pieces of land
- CGSS [Central Govt] occupies substantial Urban unused land
- High compensation under LARR 2013
- Stringent land conversion rules
- Low permitted FSI [Floor Space Index]

"ToI report: 33:1. I live in space less than what an American Prisoner gets"

2. Housing Eslums [E-slums / Slums]

Over-crowding
Water supply — drainage & sanitation
- 30% of urban pop'n do not get safe drinking water — 2011 census
Transportation & Traffic
Pollution
Governance Issues — 7
- Financing urban infra is a concern
- Strengthening municipalities
- While cities/towns → more inequality; [illegible] corps [corporations] high FSI — c'th [Commonwealth] report — recommendations for Urban Governance:
  - Give them responsibility for water supply
  - Sanitation to be given priority
  - Encourage community participation & co-prod'n [co-production] of services
  - Municipal bodies should take resp [responsibility] of power distribution
  - PPP projects for garbage collection & disposal of garbage, where pop'n > 1 lakh
  - Setting up of Urban Transport Authorities to be M/o [Ministry of] Unified Metropolitan Transport Authorities in cities with pop'n > 1 million

#Slums

"Any area where those dwellings which are detrimental to safety, health or morale of people"
- Dilapidation
- Overcrowding
- Narrow, compact, faulty street arrangement
- Lack of proper lighting, sanitation, open spaces

#Factors for Rise [of Slums] — by Nat'l [National] Institute of Urban Affairs:

Demographic dynamic of city attracting more people from rural area
Its incapacity to meet huge housing dd [demand]
Existing urban land policies which prohibit the access of poor to urban land mkt [market]

Slums have their own way of life sometimes described as "Culture of Poverty"
Slums = failure of welfare state = product of moral issue (apathy of govt)

#Govt Approach to Slums

Government approach to slums — Slum Clearance vs Slum Improvement flowchart with best option

Govt approach till now:
- Slum Clearance → Violate RT [Right to] Life (Article) 21
- Slum Improv't [Improvement] → attracts more people from rural areas
Best option?
- Upliftment of rural areas:
  - Rent Control Act, 1948
  - National Bharat Abhiyaan
- De-central'n [Decentralisation] of urban areas → Urban Planning
  - Property rights to slum dwellers Act, 2011

#Globalisation = Integration of 4Fs [Food, Film, Fashion, Finance? / Factors of Production]

#Impact on Indian Culture

Cultural diffusion
Cultural revival
Cultural clashes

#Homogenisation vs Glocalisation

Glocal: Strategy adopted by MNCs dealing with local traditions to enhance their marketability; eg: Onidpp [Onida], Hindi Kaun Banega Crorepati [KBC], Mc [illegible]
Ritzer (2001) coined the word Glocalisation — groups impose, org [organisations] tend to expand globally & to impose themselves on the local
- "Think Global + Act Local" = "Glocal"

Homogenisation	Glocalisation
1. Family → nuclear	1. Food — Paneer Tikka Pizza
2. Food — fast food taking over; paranthas' role over; filter, local restaurants replaced by McD, KFC	2. French, German, Spanish being taught in school — "hybrid"
3. Taking loans is becoming more acceptable	3. Popularity of foreign movies; Korean, Chinese, cricket but dubbing
4. Multiple theatres over old cinema halls	4. Festivals — Valentines, Friendship [Day]
5. Use of English	5. Marriage forms are changing but it has not declined as an inst'n [institution]
6. Yoga, etc.

#2. Revival of Culture

Yoga — for career by Bari Shankar, Svital [Srithal?] yoga day
Revival of Ayurvedic medicine
- Held Cram Physia in US though Amazon
Incentive for local handicraft of Banarasi, chikankari
Identity & traditions are being preserved for showcasing to global tourists

#3. Cultural Clashes

Adults do not approve of live-in, PDA [Public Display of Affection] etc

#Impact of Globalisation on Women

#Positive vs Negative

Positive	Negative
More opportunities	Exploitation of women — law, pay, social security, safety norms etc
Higher pay → confidence & Index	Not relieved of domestic chores — a full time jobs (DUAL burden)
Urbanisation → greater recognition of women's role & their self-sufficiency	Sexual harassment at workplace, while commuting, foreign city / country
Shift in family s't [structure] — women go out to work; husband vin [in] duo cooperate	Global has occurred with persistence of patriarchy → commodification of women / rising violence against them
Feminism — women are becoming more vocal	Prostitution, abuse & dowry on rise
Use of women → improved health	↑ in mental health = ↑ in suicides (33% of women suicide in India)
Red [Reduced] use of contraceptives, even in rural areas
More acceptance to western clothes
Equal partners in growth
Growing awareness about their rights
Work from home

#Impact on Youth

Paradox of red [reduced] economic opportunities & ever rising unemployment
Migration is more frequent — job & edu'n [education]
Wisdom to blur [blur] from traditional family norms, occupation
Most highly regarded careers like CSS [Civil Services], Engg [Engineering], Medicine are giving way to high paying jobs in tech
Obsessed with $$$ [money] / carry & quick money
Fit for cosmopolitan society
Globally influenced opinion
Global Icons — they belong to a much bigger community than the comm'y [community] they were born into
Embracing of western culture
Growing consumerism
Decline of traditional dress, food & way of life
Not close to grandparents — decline in family values
A lot uncertainty

#Impact of Globalisation on Family

Weakened family net'k [network] due to red [reduced] mobility
New forms emerging — single parents, live-in, female headed
Dual career family
Loosening of family bonds
Care of aged has declined
Shall'w [Shallow] extramarital, love marriage
State has taken over family's role in edu'n [education] of child
Some int'l [institutions] intact — primary agency of child / agency of social control
Shift of authority from eldest male towards bread winner
Greater role of women
Growing burden to young gen [generation]
Due to techno-connectivity with extended kins has improved

#Impact on Caste

Weakened due to red [reduced] economic opportunities, edu'n [education] & liberal thoughts
Inter-caste marriages gaining more acceptance
Breakdown of traditional division of labour
Red [Reduced] interaction b/w [between] members of diff [different] caste
Urban → secular pattern of living & de-separation of context aspect

#Socio-Economic Impacts of Globalisation

Red [Reduced] rate of growth
↑ in innovations & culture of startups
Access to global capital resources
LPS allows in PSUs
↑ in Tourism
Boost to urban & industrial [sector]
Expansion of sectors like IT, Telecom, Aviation, Ecommerce
Quality products & ↓ed prices
Improved access to tech — health but also greater spread of diseases / Medical Tourism
↑ing poverty — "trade is good for growth; growth for poor"

#Impact of Globalisation on Employment

Encourage FDI — greater emp't [employment]
↑ Interpersonal & inter-regional income inequalities — casualisation of workers — low pay, casual work arrangements
- Gig economy / freelancing
Increased job hikes due to FTE [Free Trade]
↑ in real wages of casual labour
Shift in composition of labour in favour of skilled labour
Rural mobility of workers
Feminisation of workforce
Child labour — substitution effect [replaced by adult female]
Since IR [Industrial Relations] — long consultation, cooperation & consensus

#Impact on Informal Sector

Shift from secure self emp't [employment] to more precarious w't [work]
Subjects them to enhanced competition
Weak bargaining power
Pressure on low-skilled workers & pay reductions
Lack of skills → more men enter informal sector → pushes females to lower income end
Reinforces links b/w [between] gender, poverty & informality
New opportunities for informal workers + new market

#Impact on Agriculture

Local / traditional crop → Cash crops
Progress in farm mechanisation, though its spread has been uneven (~40% in India)
Emulation of global best practices — Israel's drip irrigation
Intro of new water saving methods — drip irrigation
Subsistence farming → Capitalist & contract farming
Red [Reduced] access to local markets but constraints like inferior, stringent quality norms
More special cos & ↑d seed prices
Red [Reduced] funding of agri products
Feminisation of agri [agriculture]

#Impact on Environment

#Negative Effects

Reduced genetic diversity in agri, loss of wild species, spread of exotic species, "pollution" of air / water / soil
Accelerate climate change, depletion of resources, social & spiritual disruption
Red [Reduced] consumption = disturbed ecological balance
Ozone depletion — GHG emissions
Oceanic acidification, pollution, threat to marine life, oil spills
Red [Reduced] use of chems [chemicals] → interferes with genetic makeup of plants
Clearing of forests, mountains
Red [Reduced] vulnerability of ecosystems & core
Livelihood of poorest at risk

#Impact of Env'n [Environment] on Global [economy/politics]:

Natural resources are drivers of global [economy]
Need for env'l [environmental] amelioration can extract core from economy & siphon resources away from dev't [development] goals
Env'l [Environmental] crisis can trigger alternative tech paths of renewable energy
Env'l kids influence patterns of trade
- eg: EU vs deal

#Globalisation as a [Framework]

Globalisation — Prescription (normative) vs Description (descriptive) concept boxes

Prescription [Normative]:
- Liberal of nat'l [national] & global; mix in the belief that free flow will lead to better human welfare
Description [Descriptive]:
- Describes widening & deepening of int'l [international] culture, flow of cap't [capital], tech, etc.

#Factors for Rise [of Globalisation]:

a) Tech
b) LPG reforms [Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation]
c) Int'l [International] org'n [organisations]
d) Improved mobility of cap't [capital]
e) Rise of MNCs
f) Comparative advantage in economies
- Economies of scale
- Diff'ce [Difference] in tax regimes
Walmartisation: Big fish eating small fish (Matsyanyaya)

#Secularism

#Models around the World

1. British model — pseudo

Calls itself secular but provides financial assistance to church; welfare org'n [organisations] (not to ethnic)
- [In practice] "in public spaces"

2. American model — complete sep'n [separation] + allows rel'n [religion] in private life

3. French model — secular in true sense but prohibits citizens from carrying religious symbols in public spaces

No Turkish Burqa (kla [aka] Laicite)

4. Communist model — state is anti-religion

5. Turkish model — 99% are Islam-fellows yet state suppressed its secular majority community in name of secularism

6. Israel model — Jewish state but declares itself as secular but the very found'n [foundation] of country is on religious lines

7. Indian model

#Indian Model — Rajeev Bhargava's "Principled Distance"

State interferes in diff [different] religion in diff [different] context on diff [different] time

#Features:

No strict boundary b/w [between] religion & state
- eg: Sabrimala, Kumbh Mela, Somnath temple maintained by Orissa [Odisha] govt
No active hostility against any rel'n [religion]
Not guided by any particular ideology
Context-specific — ethnically sensitive & pol'y [politically]-negotiated
Diff [different] rel'n [religion] present in founder of state (FRs [Founding Rulers?])
Moral ↑ [uplift] — tolerance
No prohibition on use of religious symbols in public sphere

Judiciocrism — Judiciary's over involvement in religious matters
Sarnaxa — Nikhil Soni vs Rajasthan HC

#Indian Secularism vs Western Secularism

Western model = Neutrality + Apathy → Impartiality
Indian = " " + Empathy → Harmony

#Untouchability

Not just avoidance of physical contact but the social distance that various castes maintain from lower caste
Efforts of BR [Bhimrao Ramji] Gandhi → Art [Article] 17 to ©
Manifest practices checked but still exists in latent forms:
- (Social problem resolved by Pol [Political] method = didn't work)

Job mkt [market] — manual scavenging, garbage collect'n [collection]
Sep [Separate] utensils to house
Sep [Separate] burial grounds in rural areas
Caste-based politics
Still live in outskirts → subculture / culture of poverty
Labelling theory → crimes, alcohol
Caste-class nexus
Endogamous marriage — honour killings

#Way Fwd [Forward]:

Edu'n [Education] & emp't [employment]
Eco dev't [Economic development]
Encourage inter-caste marriage
Leverage tech (Bandicoot [robotic scavenger])
CSOs [Civil Society Organisations], IVOs [Integrated Volunteer Organisations]
Strict enforcement of laws
In India, wall b/w [between] state & religion is selectively porous:
- State can intervene in religion
- Religion can't [cannot] intervene in state

State (S) and Religion (R) diagram — selectively porous wall between state and religion in India

Diagram: Two circles labelled S [State] and R [Religion] with a dashed line (porous wall) — arrow from S → R (state can intervene in religion); arrow from R to wall blocked with X (religion cannot intervene in state)

#Tribal Communities in India

#Definitional Problems — Assumed to be... but:

Living in forest — tribals of Surat in plains
Primitive religion — continuance from tribal gods to Hinduised tribes to Christianity, Islam
Geographic isolation — Bhils, Santhals integrated in RJ [Rajasthan], MH [Maharashtra]
Economic backwardness — self-sufficient & better than many cases; eg: Khasi, Gond, Bhil
Common language — E [Eastern] vs [and] NE [North-East]

#Constitutional Safeguards:

A15(4) — edu'n [educational] advanc't [advancement] of STs → reservation
46 — State Promote edu'n & eco [economic] interest of SC [Scheduled Castes] & ST [Scheduled Tribes]
330 — seats reserved in LS [Lok Sabha] & VS [Vidhan Sabha]
332 — [same as above for states]
338B & 1A — NCST [National Commission for Scheduled Tribes]

#Initially Tribals Were Ignored Because of [→ "Internal Colonialism"]:

Partition
States re-org'n [reorganisation]
Land reforms
Need for industries (1952 policy based on paramount nat'l [national] needs)
Forest
Less pol [political] mobil'y [mobility]
Wars etc.

#Colonial Policies & Tribes = CAFE = Excl [Exclusion]:

Christian missionaries, Admin pol [policy], Forest policies — Exclusion (policy of isolation)
- Santhal ris'g [rising]
- Govt. discretion → Dalhousie:
  - Leak: a state property by Dalhousie
  - 3 types of forests
1952 policy → 1988 policy → PRA 2006
Sex ratio in ST = 990 !

#Tribal Issues — Integrationist vs Isolationist Debate

#Integrationist Approach — Tribal Panchsheel of Nehru (CLTOR)

C — No imposition; encourage tribal genius & culture
L — Land & forest rights to be respected
T — Train & build a team of tribals to further develop tribals
O — Over-administration to be avoided
R — Results to be judged not in quantitative but qualitative terms (human character evolved)
→ Policy endorsed & elaborated by Dhebhar Comm [Dhebhar Commission]
→ Successfully implemented only in MNP [Malabar/[illegible] National Park — context unclear; likely "AMP"]

#Problems Faced by Tribals

Displacement
Rights over forest
Naxalism
Poor dev [development] indicators
Stigma over tribal identity
Lack of voice & choice
Tribal elites capture benefits
Environmental degradation affecting their lives & livelihoods

#Xaxa Comm [Committee] (2)

Empower Gram Sabha
Tribal co-ops for mining
No to big dams
Naxalite killings to be probed

#Govt [Government] Efforts

TSP [Tribal Sub Plan]
MOTA [Ministry of Tribal Affairs]
TRIFED [Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation]
PESA [Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act]
NCST [National Commission for Scheduled Tribes]
MFP [Minor Forest Produce]
Tribes India [scheme]
Van Bandhu Kalyan Yojana
FRA [Forest Rights Act] review
PAAGATI [scheme]
DMF [District Mineral Foundation]
PVTGs [Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups]
Eklavya schools

#Middle Class in India

#Definition

The Economist defn [definition] — If more than 1/3rd income is left after paying for food & shelter

#Evolution — 4 Phases

Phase I — Colonial period — tax collectors etc.
Phase II — Indian Renaissance — modern edu [education], freedom movt [movement] etc.
Phase III — Post-Indce [Post-Independence] — edu [education], reserv'n [reservation], GR [Green Revolution] etc.
Phase IV — Post LPG [Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation] — salaried class ↑

#Causes for Rise

Political — democracy, part [participation] in DM [decision-making], adult franchise etc.
Social — sanskritisation, spread of edu [education] etc.
Eco [Economic] — commercial & industrial
(MC [Middle Class] are still in the process form'd [formed], not yet acquired a stable form)
- Rural vs Urban MC
- Denationalised MC

#Great Indian MC [Middle Class]

2005 — 5%
2015 — 20%
2025 — 40%

#Features — Tremendous growth in nos. [numbers]

Changed class structure:
- Rich → Rich
- Poor → MC [Middle Class] + Poor
Role in PEST [Political, Economic, Social, Technological]
Social Hfg [Hashtag/Harbinger?] in policies & there role as 3Is [Initiator, Indicator, Integrator]
- (Initiator, Indicator, Integrator)
Globally becoming Glocal due to large MC in India
- eg: McD [McDonald's] local menu
Alienated due to:
- Ambitions
- Nuclear [family]
- Denationalised
- Consumeristic culture

#Transgenders

#Key Data

4.8L [4.8 lakh] transgenders in India as per Census 2011

89% have no jobs (50-60% → no school)

#Definition

A person whose gender does not match with the gender assigned at birth

#Yogyakarta Principles (mentioned as side note)

13 transgenders in police service in 3 govts [governments]

#Flowchart — Cycle of Marginalisation

Transgenders — social exclusion & discrimination → no edu & health facilities → unemployment → poverty → Human Rights violation cycle; NALSA judgement arrows

Social exclusion & discrimination → No edu [education] & health facilities
- → Unemployment → Poverty → Human Rights violation → (back to social exclusion)
- → via NALSA (Q):
  - RT [Right to] Self Identify
  - Third Gender
  - Reserv'n [Reservation] under OBC [Other Backward Class] status

#Transgender Persons Act, 2019

Bring community into mainstream
Prohibit discrimin [discrimination] in edu [education]/emp [employment]/healthcare
Includes transmen/women/persons with intersex variations
Right to self-perceived gender identity
Recognises forced labour, physical/sexual/emotional abuse, denial of use of public places etc. as criminal offence
Establish a Nat'l [National] Council for Transgender Persons (NCT) with Mo Social Justice as Chairperson (Advisory)

#Concerns

Criminal & personal laws are not gender neutral
Members of community name their blood source of income to be protected under law
NALSA judgement of SC [Supreme Court] talked about need for reserv'n [reservation] in emp't [employment] & edu [education] but no explicit prov'n [provision] in Act

#Manual Scavenging

#Definition

Practice of manual cleaning of human excreta from service/dry latrines

#Data — Safai Karamchari Andolan

Highest no. of dry latrines → UP [Uttar Pradesh]
Max sewer deaths in T. Nadu [Tamil Nadu]

#Measures Taken So Far

AIR + PCRA, 1955 [likely SER + PCRA — [illegible] abbreviation]
NCSK Act, 1993
Employment of Manual Scavengers (Prohib'n [Prohibition]) Act, 1993 → 2013 [amended]
NSK [National Safai Karamcharis] Finance & Dev Corp, 1997

#Sanitation Schemes

Nirmal Bharat
SBA, 2014 [Swachh Bharat Abhiyan]
Scheme for self emp't [employment] for rehab [rehabilitation] of MS [Manual Scavengers], 2013
SKA, 1995 (CSO) [Safai Karamchari Andolan]
Rashtriya Garima Abhiyan (2002)

#Why Still Persists?

→ Cont'd [Continued] presence of insanitary latrines
→ No infra [infrastructure] & inst'al [institutional] machinery
→ Social perception (cultural occupation)
→ No implement'n [implementation] of rehab scheme
→ Loopholes in legal protection (2013 act ban hazardous cleaning not protective headgear)

#Way Forward

→ MtDI [Mission to Dignity] — Life of dignity
Bandicoots [robotic scavenging machines]
Social reengineering

#Elderly — Ageing

#Header Note

Eco [Economic] adv [advantage] due to ↑ in life expectancy
Active Ageing, Healthy Ageing, Longevity Dividend

#Data

2011 census — 104 million
- 53 mn [million] females
- 51 mn [million] males
UNPF → 173 mn [million] by 2026

Kerala has max % of elderly in its pop'n [population] (12.6%)

#Side Note

Ageist — (found 1:4 of OP [Old People] are suffering from depression)

#Challenges Faced

1) Social

Ageist stereotypes (how we think) — Prejudices ("feel") — Discrimination ("act")
Changing family structure
No social support
Rapidly changing world — global tech advancements

2) Health

Medical problems (4A's)
- 2A of healthcare
But → UberHealth (but only 2A; affordable?)

3) Economic

Financial dependency
No social security/insurance

4) Psychological

Powerlessness/Inferiority/Depression, uselessness/Isolation etc.

#Initiatives Taken by Govt

MLAI (DRLP) [illegible abbreviation]
IPOP [Integrated Prog [Programme] for OP [Older Persons]]
Maintenance & Welfare of Parents & Senior Citizens Act
IGNOAPS [Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme]
RVY [Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana]
PMVVY [Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandana Yojana]
Nat'l [National] Policy for OP [Older Persons], 1999

#Way Forward

→ Create emp't [employment] for OP [Older Persons] (WFH [Work from Home], think tank, achieve, [illegible], self-help corps, age-friendly [illegible], aged tech)
→ Age-friendly envr [environment]
→ Address diversity in old age
→ Long term care (MP Time Bank Model)
→ Research in Geriatrics

#Census Data 2001–2011

35% ↑ in old age people (>60 yrs)
Rural'n [Ruralisation] of old age — 70% stay in rural areas
Feminisation of old age — 1033/1000

#Disability (Yojana)

Medical Model

Focus is on bodily abnormalities & dysfn [dysfunction] caused thereby
aka "Personal Tragedies" model; ind [individual] is regarded as victims in perpetual need of care

Social Model

Society & barriers are seen as causing disability rather than ind's [individual's] limits
[Invisible Disability] — noted as side concept

#Way Forward — Twin Track Approach

Mainstreaming

Ensuring PwDs [Persons with Disabilities] have access to their basic needs in all policies & prog's [programmes] on an equal basis with others
eg: SSA [Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan] (zero rejection policy)
RBI's disability-inclusive banking
Kudumbashree

Targeting

Addressing specific needs of ind'l [individual] in order to empower them & improve their situation
eg: RPD Act, 2016
DEO PwD
RCI [Rehabilitation Council of India]
Sugamya Bharat
ADIP [Assistance to Disabled Persons for purchase/fitting of Aids & Appliances]

#Goal

Equality of Rights & Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities

#Racial Intolerance — Concept, Causes, Implications

#Definition

Race is a group of people with distinctive physical features like colour, height, texture of hair etc.

#Causes — Flowchart

No cultural synthesis → Development of stereotype → Hostile attitude
- Generalization → Resorting to normal tools of invisibility → Violence against racial minority
Ltd [Limited] resources → Relative deprivn [deprivation]
Obsession with fair color
Rising elements pitting one group [against another]
Poor law & order → domino effect

#Implications

eg: Africa cancelled talks after [illegible]; Bangalore incident [noted in margin]
→ -ve impact on social harmony, cohesion
→ Social unrest & secessionist tendencies
→ Bilateral rel's [relations] get affected
→ Prospects of India as a destn [destination] for business & edu [education]

#Way Forward

Sensitising prog [programme] for Indians
Bezbaruah Comm [Committee]:
- Stringent laws
- FTC [Fast Track Courts] & spl [special] police squad be set up
- Intervention in edn [education] system
- Social media outreach
- Legal awareness campaign
CPM [Community Policing Mechanism] to assure racial minority
Workshops in residential areas about culture of RM [Racial Minority]
Police sensitisation

#Drug Abuse

#Definition

Use of certain chemicals for the purpose of creating pleasurable effects on the brain
eg: Virtue of alcohol, opiates, cocaine etc.

#Facts

Per UNODC Report, India is among the countries with highest illicit cultivn [cultivation] & prodn [production] of cannabis
AIIMS 2019 — Alcohol is most common
Most affected — NE [North-East] (esp Manipur) & NW [North-West] (esp Punjab)

#Causes

Geog [Geographical] location (Golden △ & ☽ [Golden Triangle & Golden Crescent])
Socio-eco [Socio-economic] factors — family history, unemp [unemployment], changing cultural values, peer pressure, media, ↑ accessibility, no social control
Psycho [Psychological] — low self esteem, poor stress mgmt [management], childhood issues/trauma
Weak law enforc't [enforcement] & regulatory control

#Impact

Ind → family → social → nation

Threat to demo dividend
Interpersonal relations — child abuse, domestic violence
Drug trafficking → Money laundering & terror finance
Loss of revenue due to illicit prodn [production]
↑ Healthcare costs
Social ostracization

#Constitutional & Legal Provisions

Art 47 — State shall discourage intoxicants use
NDPS Act, 1985
Nasha Mukt Bharat (2020-21) for 272 most affected dists [districts]

#Way Forward

Subst [Substance] abuse prevention prog [programme]
Conducive legal & policy envt [environment]
Efficient control

#Drug Abuse — Vicious & Virtuous Cycle Diagrams

#Vicious Cycle

Weakening of RoL [Rule of Law]
- → Rising illicit drug production
- → Strengthening of organised crime & violence
- → Reduction in investment into licit sectors
- → Reduction in growth of licit economy
- → (back to Weakening of RoL)

#Virtuous Cycle

Falling poverty & rising RoL [Rule of Law]
- → Falling illicit drug prodn [production]
- → Weakening of organised crime
- → Increased investment in licit sectors
- → Growth of licit economy
- → (back to Falling poverty & rising RoL)

#Unpaid Work

#Key Data

ILO, 2018 — 3/4 of unpaid care work by women

⟳ Updated fact report-edition

As in notesILO, 2018 — 3/4 (three-quarters) of unpaid care work by women

NowILO Care Work and Care Jobs report (2018): women perform 76.2% (more than three-quarters) of total unpaid care work globally — figure is directionally confirmed and still widely cited; updated ILO 2024 data shows women do 3× more unpaid care work than men globally (708 mn women outside labour force due to care responsibilities) (as of 2024)

The ILO 2018 figure of 76.2% (≈three-quarters) is confirmed from the ILO Care Work report executive summary. ILO's Oct 2024 update reinforces the gender gap (women do 3× more), so the '3/4' framing remains valid; the report edition should be noted as 2018.

Source: Care Work and Care Jobs for the Future of Decent Work (Executive Summary) — ILO, 2018

NSC — 91:8% women part'n [participation] in UCW [Unpaid Care Work]; 20% men (in 2019)

#Why Always Women?

Patriarchal norms — Men as breadwinners, women as caregivers
No ability to participate in paid work
No alternate care infra [infrastructure]
Financial constraints
↑ in HH [Household] income

#Key Concepts

"Dual Burden", "Second shift", "Double day" — one at home, one at work
"Time poverty" — acute time pressure & no freedom to utilise one's time as per his/her choice

#Implications (for Women)

↑ Barriers to women LFPR [Labour Force Participation Rate] (2% women in paid work; 70% men)

Disc'n [Discrimination] to hiring & pay
↑ Gender Inequalities
Time poverty
Health problems for women (eat last & least)
Deteriorates quality of life
↑ Vulnerable to env'al [environmental] & eco [economic] changes

#For Society

+ve	-ve
1. Subst'd [Substituted] of market — lower cost of paid work	1. ↓ economic gains (IMF — 27% GDP↑)
2. Human capital form'n [formation]	2. Undervaluation of paid "first" — domestic help
3. Supplements govt duties — elderly care	3. Quality of care

#Recognising Unpaid Work as Economic Activity

Need

Ensuring rights of unpaid workers
Women empowerment
Holistic understanding of labour
Enhancing policy eff'y [efficiency]
Monetis'n [Monetisation] of carework

Challenges

Legal defn'al [definitional] problems
Reinforcing sex-based div'n [division] of labour — info is women's work & they are being paid for it
Impact on social setup
Commodification of care

#Way Forward — Triple R Flw [Framework]

Recognize	Reduce	Redistribute
1. Measure unpaid work	1. Provide universal access to care	1. Family-friendly working policies
2. Valuation	2. Change societal norms	2. Compensate adequately
3. Gender budget

#Migration

#Key Data

450mn [450 million] as per 2011 Census

#Definition

Movement of people from one place to another

#Nature of Factors

Multifaceted factors — PES [Political, Economic, Social], ecological, personal ambition (push & pull factors) → depending on 8th [factor — Economic]
Internal & External
- Long km [kilometres]
- Short
4 Economic factors (Push/Pull):
- Push: [illegible] back / [illegible] back
- Pull: [illegible] / [illegible]
- (Note: table shown with headers Push/Pull but content entries were [illegible] in the margin)

#Key Source & Destination States

Key source — UP, Bihar, RJ [Rajasthan], MP, AP, CG [Chhattisgarh]
Destination — DL [Delhi], MH [Maharashtra], GT [Gujarat], HR [Haryana], PB [Punjab], KN [Karnataka]
309 mn [million] Internal migration (30% of pop'n [population])
- 70% are women (marriage)
Art 19 — Right to move throughout the country

#Impact

On Destination Region (PES)

+ve	-ve
Labour addresses gap & economic remittances, skill devt [development], quality of life, social remittance, food & nutrition security (told by FAO), demographic adv [advantage], CC [Climate Change] adaptive mechanism	On source region; on destination region; on migrants (+ve/-ve)

11/17 SDGs contain targets & indicators relevant to [migration]

-ve (Negative Impacts)

Demographic profile — brain drain
Pol [Political] exclusion
Pop'n [Population] explosion
Exploitation
Slums ↑

Challenges

Inclusion & Integration
Psycho-emotional stress (Marginalised Man)
Emp't [Employment] challenges (Visa barriers in US, Saudi Arabia)
Contract wage system
No MFN
Exclusion from social benefits
"Inter State Migrant Workers Act, 1979 shall be implemented in letter & spirit"

#Key Schemes

Kovida Aawaz Health Insurance [illegible]
Apna Ghar project
Portable Rights (also supported by ILS 17 [illegible])

#RPD [Rights of Persons with Disabilities] Act, 2016

#Key Data

2.2% PwD as per 2011 Census

#Objective / Definition

"Discrimination" is defined as any exclusion/restriction based on disability which impairs the act'n [action] of providing the social, pol [political], cultural, eco [economic] rights on equal ground; however discrimination is allowed if it is a fair means of achieving a legitimate aim

#Key Provisions

Disability ↑ from 7 to 21
4% reserv'n [reservation] in edn [education]/govt [government] inst's [institutions]
Clause of benchmark disability (40%+)
Barrier-free access to all infra [infrastructure] & transport
Spl [Special] prov'n [provision] for disabled women & children (6-18 yrs edn [education])
Prov'n [Provision] for Nat'l [National] comm't [committee] removed & is reduced to office of Chief Commissioner & Advisory body
NRDS [National Register of Disabled Persons] State fund
Penalty & jail imprisonment in case of violence against PwD

#Way First [Forward]

Spl [Special] courts
E-learning/Inclusive edu [education] w/o [without] labelling
SO [Social Organisations] + CSR [Corporate Social Responsibility] on disabled-friendly infra [infrastructure]
Skill devt [development]
Social awareness

#Disability — Poverty Cycle

Disability-Poverty vicious cycle: Disability → lack of edn, health problems, emp't opportunities → Poverty → no WASH, no social security, no safe neighbrhd, more prone to occupational hazards → (back to Disability)

Disability → Lack of edn [education], health problems, emp't [employment] opportunities
- → Poverty
  - No WASH [Water, Sanitation, Hygiene]
  - No social security
  - No safe neighbrhd [neighbourhood]
  - More prone to occupational hazards
- → (back to Disability)

Society — Quick Notes

Topper handwritten notes

#Page 1 — Indian Society: Core Concepts

#Indian Society — Overview

Global → 4I [illegible expansion]
- Social exclusion
- Inequality
- Stratification
Commodify / Commercial
NARA [boxed] — Nat[ional] Ambition, Regional Aspiration

#Unity in Diversity

Three overlapping circles meeting at centre = unity in diversity
Unity based on:
- Similarities ↔ Differences
- Mechanic ↔ Organic (below / above)
Similarly, global from [above/below]
Glocal [boxed: "vocal for local"]
- Cultural clash
- Encounter
- Synthesis
- Diffusion

Diversity-in-Unity box diagram — square containing circle, triangle, square, hexagon shapes

Box diagram: circle △ square hexagon inside one frame = Diversity in Unity

#Nuclear Family → Rural to Urban Migration

Nuclear fam[ily] in rural areas ↑ to 58↑; urban areas ↑ to 51–52↑
Unity w/o [without] uniformity, diversity w/o fragmen[t]

#Secularism & Caste

Secular → "pol[itics] of caste" → "as actual of caste"
Relative deprivation
Ghost citizens
Social consequences of GR [Green Revolution]:
- = WED TRIM [underlined]
  - Wages exploit, Displace[ment], 9 [nine] tenants
  - Income only, Migrat[ion]
  - Regional ineq[uality]

#Transform[ation] of System / Inst[itution]

Trad[itional] Status	Forces of Change	Contemporary Reality
[arrow down]	[arrow down]	[arrow down]

Impact on Inst[itution]:
- {Ripple} → Structure
- → Function

Caste pyramid: B (Brahmins) at top, K (Kshatriyas), V (Vaishyas), S (Shudras), Untouchable at base

Caste hierarchy pyramid (top → bottom): B (Brahmins), K (Kshatriyas), V (Vaishyas), S (Shudras), Untouchable

#Dimensions of Culture [boxed]

Food — Festivals
Dress — Language
Music — Literature
Dance — Marriage / Rituals
Religion

#Tobacco

27 cr[ore] users in I [India] (2018) [boxed in red]

Kills 1 mn [million] people each yr
Lancet = leading risk factor for cancer in I
"Dual Uses"

#Dalit Issues (Right side, Page 1)

8↑ inter-caste marriages [boxed in red]
Dalits:
- Mandal of pol[itics]
- Vertical → Horizontal competition (new avat[ar])
- Entrenched vs ascendent caste
- DICCI + Nat[ional] Fed[eration of] Dalit Women, 1987
- Bhim Army, Dalit Sahitya, Vaish[ya] equal society

#NCRB Statistics — Dalits

NCRB [boxed] = 49↑ 44↑ ↑ on violence against Dalit (2010–14) and further 5.2↑ from 2014 to 16

#Welfarism → Development → Empowerment

#Child Abuse

53↑ children have faced child abuse — MoWCD [boxed]
2011 census [boxed] — 30↑ of all women married were victims of child marriage
336↑ ↑ in child rape cases in 2010–14 → NCRB [boxed]
Highest dowry deaths in UP, Bihar (NCRB)
- → IPC Sec 304B [boxed] & Sec 498A [boxed]

#Page 2 — Women in Society

#Women's Movement — Key Organisations (India Map)

India map showing women's movement organisations by region: Saheli (Delhi), Nav Nirman Guy, Sampurna Kranti Abhiyas, Anti Atrocity Movement, Progressive [org] of women, Flgt [Fight], Manushi NP

Saheli (Delhi)
Sampurna Kranti Abhiyas [top right on map]
Nav Nirman Guy [left side]
Progres[sive org] of women, Flgt [centre right]
Anti At[rocity] Mont[h] [centre]
Manushi NP [north]

#Feminism Strands

Corporate feminism
Eco fem[inism]
Dalit fem[inism]
Zomato / Periodic [leave] (Asia) [example of corporate feminism]

#Women's Economic Gaps — Venn Diagram

Three-circle Venn diagram: Participation gap (LFPR = 23↑), Remuneration gap (>30↑ / wage gap), Advancement gap (>13↑ in senior mgmt) — overlapping centre = Economic Deprivation

Circles: Participation gap (LFPR = 23↑), Remuneration gap (>30↑ / wage gap), Advancement gap (>13↑ in senior mgmt)
Centre overlap = Economic Deprivation of Women [boxed]

#NCRB Statistics — Women

NCRB [boxed] → 300 crimes against women per day (let convicted rate 625 in [illegible])
[a] dowry deaths daily [boxed, highlighted]
92↑ women do unpaid care work — 90↑ men (2017) → NSO [boxed]
Global Gender Gap 2021 — 140↑ [rank]
- 10mn child labour (census)
- MDM [Mid-Day Meal] — P[M] as best practice
- 4 82↑ children u/i [under / in] MDM
- 4 eggs/bananas twice a week

#POCSO [boxed]

<18 yrs of age
32↑ conviction rate (last 5 yrs avg)
90↑ pendency
Always (Kathua case — 6mn even when act says max 1 yr)
4/100 crimes committed by juveniles + 50↑ of those crimes against women
3R flow → Recognise, Reduce, Redistribute

#Economic Deprivation of Women — Graph

Line graph showing decline in women's economic participation; y-axis values 445, 193, [illegible], x-axis years 1971, [illegible], 2017; arrow pointing to ">63mn missing women"; annotation "more men not getting wives"; "low CSR"; "crime against women → become bare branches"

Graph shows decline in indicator (445 → 193 → … over 1971–2017)
→ >63 mn missing women
Low CSR [Child Sex Ratio] → more men not getting wives → "Become bare branches" [sociological term]
Crime against women: rape, trafficking

#Empowerment / Inclusive Growth Timeline Graph

Graph with x-axis 1949–2017 showing stages: Race approach → Empow[erment] → Inclusive growth → Gender Mainstream; annotations: remuneration gap →>30↑ wage gap, advancement gap →>13↑ in senior mgmt

Timeline: 1949 → Race approach → Empow[erment] → Inclusive growth → Gender Mainstream
X-axis: 1949, [illegible], 2000, 2017
Race approach era; Empowerment era; Inclusive growth era (2000 onward)

#Mean Age of Pop[ulation] (2020)

US & China = 37
Europe = 45
Japan = 49
India = 29
Global economy → shortfall of 56mn [boxed] shortage of young
India will have surplus of 47mn [boxed]

#Family Planning in India — Table

Table: Family Planning Experiment — Women & Child welfare; columns 1951, 75, 2000; rows: CLHRC [illegible], NFP[P] 52; See NFP 96, integration with maternal & child care; 2WNPP 2010, contraception home delivery, Mission Parivar Vikas

Year	Programme	Key Feature
1951	Family Planning (first programme in world)	CLHRC / NFP[P] 52
1975	[illegible]	See NFP 96, integrate[d] maternal & child care
2000	2WNPP [National Population Policy] 2010	Contraception, home delivery, Mission Parivar Vikas

#Page 3 — Urbanisation, Slums, Religion & Migration

#Child Poverty / Malnutrition — State Data

Bihar (34↑)
Sikkim (1.19)
[1.5–2] [illegible range]
3/3 children in 0–14 from UP / Bihar [handwritten annotation on India map]

India map outline with dots marking Bihar, Sikkim, and UP/Bihar region; annotation "3/3 children in 0-14 are from UP/Bihar"

#Slums [boxed, red]

13↑ / 14↑ urban pop[ulation] (Census 2011)
Clearance — Improvement — Attracts more slum
SDG → [illegible]
Rural = "Decennial" of urban areas

#Urban Issues

TOI Report — 33↑ Indians live in spaces less than what an American prisoner gets
30↑ urban pop → no safe drinking water

#Census 2011 — Urban Table

Table: Census 2011 data; Present vs 2030 projections; Urban Pop: 377mn → 600mn; Megacities: 5 → 8; GDP share: 62↑ → 75↑

Indicator	Present (2011)	2030
Urban pop	377mn	600mn
Megacities	5	8
GDP share	62↑	75↑

#Rural-Urban Divide (2011) — Table

Table: Rural vs Urban divide 2011; Electricity: Rural 55↑ vs Urban 93↑; Piped water: Rural 35↑ vs Urban 71↑

Indicator	Rural	Urban
Electricity	55↑	93↑
Piped water	35↑	71↑

#India's Urban Dichotomy

Triangle diagram: 100 scm top (slum), 300 scm mid (overcrowded), Red base; label "Dichotomy"

Under (at peri [periphery] level, rural >>> urban) vs Over (2/3 of urban pop in few urban agglomerates)
Dichotomy
Delhi on 118 / 140 on Liveability Index 2019

#Secularism & Religion — State-Religion Diagram

State-Religion can-integrate/can't-interfere diagram: State ↔ Religion with solid arrow "can integrate" and dashed arrow crossed out "can't interfere" — label: Neutrality + Empathy = Harmony → India; selectively permeable wall

Notality = Impartiality [West]
- Apathy
Neutrality = Harmony [India]
- Empathy
State ←→ Religion:
- Solid arrow: can integrate
- Dashed arrow (crossed): can't interfere
∴ Selectively permeable wall
- (A) Arms-length distance
- (T) Principled distance
Santhara — Nikhil Soni v/s SC [ORI?]

#Great Indian Middle Class — Bar Chart

Bar chart: Great Indian Middle Class; x-axis 2005, 2015, 2025; bars show 5↑ (2005), 20↑ (2015), 40↑ (2025)

2005: 5↑
2015: 20↑
2025 (projected): 40↑

#Internal Migration

450mn migrants — 2011 census
20↑ of pop = internal migration
Census study / Tessta [result]:
- Poorer health insurance
- Apna Ghar Project
- Portable rights
11/17 SDGs relate to migration

#Tribal / Forest Data

[1 & 3/4] ↑ pop = FWD [Forest Dwellers]
- Only 36↑ enrol[led] — census 2011
- 75↑ don't attend any school

#Page 4 — Disability, COVID-19 Impact, Elderly, Hunger

Medical Model → Social Model flowchart: Medical Model box (focus on bodily abnormalities) → arrow → Social Model box (social barriers seen as causing disability)

Medical Model: focus on bodily abnormalities
Social Model: social barriers seen as causing disability

#Twin Track Approach

Mainstream [left track]:
- SSA (0 reject policy)
- [illegible] inclusive banking
Targeting [right track]:
- RPD 2016
- Sugamya Bharat [Accessible India Campaign]
- ADIP [Assistance to Disabled Persons scheme]
→ Equality of rights & opportunity for PwD

#Other Disability / Inclusion Data

Highest no. of day labourers [in] [illegible] — max sewer deaths in TN [boxed]
4.5↑ transgenders — census
3 transgenders in 36 garh [Chhattisgarh] police
[illegible] vakasha principles
NALSA judgement
84↑ have no jobs

#Elderly

104 mn elderly [53mn female, 51mn males]

Kerala — max ↑
↑ (1.3↑)
Agewell found — 48↑ suffer from depression
1033 females / 1000 males ← best in rural areas
Global Pension System = 1 = 22 / 37 [boxed]
Healthy Ageing Decade (2020–30)
Longevity dividend
Silver economy

#COVID-19 Impact [boxed, red]

Child marriage — Lancet: 2.5mn more girls at risk
Shadow pandemic — VAW — 1 in 3 women acc. to UN
100mn women at risk of poverty
Red fem[inisation] of agri
NCRB [boxed] ↑ in cybercrimes — 54 complaints in April '20 against 37 in April '19
Child labour — globally 9mn add[ed] children (ILO)
Mental illness cases ↑ by 20↑ (WEF)
No. of poor in 1 ↑ from 6cr to 134cr due to COVID-induced recession — Pew Research [boxed]

#Global Hunger Index — 101 Rank [boxed]

Undernourishment — 15.3↑

Stunting — 34↑ [34.1]

Wasting — 17↑

VS [Versus] Mortality — 3.4↑

#Urban Asymmetric Indices

Urban Asymmetric (↑) [boxed]:
- 621 waste [illegible unit] access
- 63↑ HH [household] water tap
1938 / 1300 ULBs have Master plans

#Gandhi Quote

"Our ability to reach unity in diversity will be the beauty & test of our civil" — Gandhiji [boxed]

#Age Crime Curve

Age Crime Curve — tendency to commit crime ↑ in early adolescence; peaks at late teens & ↓ in 20s & 30s
Healthy Ageing Decade (2020–30)
Longevity dividend / Silver economy
Global Pension System = 1 = 22 / 37 [boxed]

#Page 5 — Child Malnutrition, Food Security, Fake News, Road Safety

#UNICEF Flow for Child Malnutrition

UNICEF causation tree for child malnutrition: Child Mal[nutrition] → under nourishment, stunting, wasting, over(O)/obesity; Immediate cause: Inadequate diet + Diseases; Underlying cause: (A)(A)(A) = poor child care + poor wash practices; Basic cause: Quantity & Quality of human/financial/organisational resources

Manifestation of problem:
- Child Mal[nutrition] →
  - Under nourishment
  - Stunting
  - Wasting
  - Over (O) / Obesity
Immediate cause:
- Inadequate diet ← → Diseases
Underlying cause:
- (A) (A) (A) [three A-factors] → Poor child care + Poor WASH [Water, Sanitation, Hygiene] practices
Basic cause:
- Quantity & Quality of resources:
  - Human
  - Financial
  - Organisational

#Malnutrition — Girl / Boy / Adolescent Triangle

Triangle diagram with labels: mal[nourished] girl at top, mal[e] mother on left, mal[e] (B) adolescent on right — intergenerational cycle

Mal[nourished] girl (top)
Mal[e] mother (left)
Mal(B) [male/boy] adolescent (right)
Represents intergenerational cycle of malnutrition

#A Rich / Progressive Country

Not where the poor have care
But where the rich use public transportation
India is not running out of water; water is running out of India

#REPLACE Framework [boxed]

Review
Promote
Legislate
Assess
Create
Enforce

#WEb → 1↑ poverty leads to 0.7↑ ↑ in child labour [boxed]

#Food Security

People facing food insecurity ↑ by 47cr [crore] during COVID19 [boxed]
Largest foodstock in the world: 120mn tonnes [boxed] (July 2021) also for a quarter of all food insecure people
Why?
- High economic distress
- High unemp[loyment]
- High inequality
- High & fluctuating food pric[es]
- Informal economy
Men as breadwinners, women as caregivers
- Time Poverty
- 3R flow — Recognise, Reduce, Redistribute
- → And shift / divi[de] day

#Sahi Poshan, Desh Roshan [scheme name]

#Fake News

Sec 505 of IPC
IT Act 66D of 17 Act, 2000
IT Sec 54 D, DM Act, 2005
AI system by FB
My Gov's Vashna [Vishwa?] news desk
PIB fact checker
Kerala govt — Fake news classes
Alliance of self-verify?

#MP Time Bank Model [boxed]

Women earns = 19↑ to GDP as per 2018 Mercury Report [illegible]
LFPR in Sweden is 88↑

#Road Safety / Accidents

Road [accident] → 1.5 lakh deaths due to road accidents in past 10 years out of which 50↑ can be saved (are preventable) [boxed]

#Page 6 — Hunger & Malnutrition (cont.), Drug Abuse, Migration

#Hunger & Malnutrition [boxed]

#101 on GHI [Global Hunger Index]

Under → 15↑
Mortality — 3.4↑
Wasting — 17↑
Stunting — 17.3↑ [or 17.31]

#Reasons for Hunger / Malnutrition

Poor maternal health
Sanitation → Absorption
Eco distress
NFSA [National Food Security Act] issues — not universal
Not apply in times of war / flood / drought / [illegible] / [illegible]
Cereal centric
CRS [?] SDG = 49↑ beneficiaries yet to be identified by SG
42↑ food wastage
Unstable prices
R2U migration [Rural to Urban]
Corruption

#SO? (Solutions)

Mother edu[cation]
Dietary diversity (AP [Andhra Pradesh] model)
ONDRC [?]
Gov[ernance] reforms
SBM [Swachh Bharat Mission] | Maternal & child care

#Drug Abuse — Vicious Cycle Diagram

Circular flowchart: Drug abuse (header) → Drug use disorder → Ltd. edu[cation] → Ltd. empl[oyment] → Poverty → (back to) Drug use disorder; label in centre: {Vicious cycle}

Drug use disorder → Ltd. edu[cation] → Ltd. empl[oyment] → Poverty → Drug use disorder (vicious cycle)

#SC in Sucheta Srivastava vs Chandigarh Admin [boxed]

"SC in Sucheta Srivastava vs Chandigarh admin case held that women's freedom to take reproductive decisions is a part of personal liberty u/A 21."

#Migration [boxed]

Migration flowchart: Labour Surplus State → (Human resources →) Labour Deficient State; Labour Deficient State → (Remittances ←) Labour Surplus State

Labour Surplus State → [Human resources →] → Labour Deficient State
Labour Deficient State → [← Remittances] → Labour Surplus State
Promotes balanced regional devt
Tool to reap Demographic Dividend
{Skill map}

#Kerala Model

Apna Ghar Project
Changathi — Library campaigns
Portable benefits
Health — Arwaz Scheme [or Aswaz Scheme]

[illegible] spots noted: p2 conviction rate denominator; p3 tribal FWD percentage prefix; p4 sewer deaths state (partially read as TN); p4 vakasha principles heading; p5 Alliance name; p6 CRS acronym expansion; p6 ONDRC expansion.

Geography

Topper handwritten notes

#GS1 – Geography

Alfred Weber – Theory of Industrial Location: RM [raw material] is used where transport cost of RM + factory is min [minimum]

#Factors Responsible for Location of Industries

#IT Industry

Factors guiding the location are: resource availability, cost & infra [infrastructure]
Silicon Valley, California
- 1. Top notch unis [universities] around the valley = skilled, technical HR [Human Resources] (Stanford)
- 1. Temperate climate
- 1. Low cost land (fruit orchards → business parks)
- 1. Good interstate port connectivity in Oakland to cheaply ship out semiconductor products
- 1. Strong local infra & rich investors
- 1. Govt labs & research
Bangalore, India
- 1. Mild climate (computers are sensitive – history of [illegible] to heat & dust) – cheaper
  - Hub for startups
  - Close proximity to [illegible] admin [illegible]
- 1. IISc, Bangalore
- 1. Govt labs related to space & defence research
- 1. Infosys, Wipro
  - Large pool of techies – highest no. of engg. & prog. college in world [illegible]
  - Cosmopolitan culture

#General Factors Affecting Location

Govt policy
Integrated transport & communication facilities
Access to market
Reliable power supply
Access to agglomeration economies
Labour cost
Skilled & unskilled labour

#Iron & Steel Industry

Raw material – heavy & weight losing
- Eg. Chota Nagpur region
- TISCO at Jamshedpur (Jharia coalfields) / Mayurbhanj ore / Damodar valley
- Kolkata port – [illegible]
Markets – Product is bulky, transport cost ↑
- TISCO – near Kolkata (MKt)
- Visakhapatnam Steel Plant – X-M [export-import] facility
Labour – Chota Nagpur
- Durgapur, WB [West Bengal]
- Singhbhum – 7 districts [illegible] / Mayurbhanj / Dharia coal / Sundargarh Limestone / [illegible] – DVC [Damodar Valley Corporation]
Availability of water for cooling
- Eg. Bokaro on Damodar River
Nearness to Industrial town
Govt policy – Bhilai in Segauli
Power – TISCO, Bokaro → Damodar Valley Corp[oration]
Transport – TISCO – Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai

#Why Pharma Industry in West?

A footloose industry – – – → so scattered over India
1. Proximity to ports (Kandla, Bhavnagar) = easy access to Africa, Europe etc.
2. Favourable state policy of Gujarat & EDB [Export Development Board] (SEZ)
3. Proximity to petrochemical hubs near Gujarat coast & Mumbai
4. Easy capital (Guj [Gujarat] + MH [Maharashtra])
5. Historical spirit of entrepreneurship
Steel – India is 2nd largest producer
⟳ Updated fact stat
As in notes1.5% of GDP
Now~2% of GDP (as of 2025)
IBEF and PIB sources consistently report the Indian steel industry contributes ~2% to India's GDP, up from the older 1.5% figure cited in earlier NSP documents.
Source: India's Steel Sector Advances Towards Self-Reliance – PIB Backgrounder
- 1.5% of GDP
- 8.5 lakh people employed
- Natl [National] Steel Policy, 2017
- PLI [Production Linked Incentive]
- Steel Research & Tech Mission

India map – Steel Plants locations (Bokaro/Jharkhand, Jamshedpur/TISCO, Rourkela/Odisha noted)

India map sketch showing:
- Bokaro / Jharkhand (NE cluster)
- TISCO (central-east)
- Rourkela, Odisha (Hirakud noted)

#Why Gujarat Has Diamond Industry?

Diamonds just like spices is a community-based business – guarded by Jains & Patels
Connectivity with ports & overseas logistics network
Skilled labour in Surat & Mumbai
Govt policy (focused on it)
Finance
But diamond popularity is ↓ due to jewellery fashion & its modern? [illegible] but also abroad also
→ Health issues due to dust from cutting–polishing
→ India doesn't produce RM for diamonds, only value add – so it is linked with industry in Africa & [illegible]
→ Surat affected due to GST & demonetisation

#Automobile Industry – Footloose Industry

Requires variety of RM – steel, non-ferrous metals, plastic, rubber, glass, wood, paint, cables, textile etc.
- Best location is an [illegible] region
Detroit = Car capital of world
1. Transport – Detroit river linked to Lake Huron
2. Labour – long tradition of building machines
3. Agglomeration industry
4. Entrepreneurs – Henry Ford
5. RM – Steel from Pittsburgh
Toyota – Nagoya, Japan
1. High unemployment + cheap labour
2. Drive by reverse engg [engineering] from US tech
3. Transport – metropolitan area + ports
4. Govt policy – cheap land for factory

India map – Automobile Industry clusters (N: Mumbai/Nashik/Pune/Sanand/Vadodara; S: Bengaluru/Vellore/Chennai/Kanchipuram)

India map sketch showing:
- Tata Motors, Mahindra, Honda (central)
- Maruti, Suzuki (NW)
- Royal Enfield (S cluster)
- Bajaj, Piaggio (W)
- Renault, Nissan, Yamaha (far S)
- N – Mumbai, Nashik, Pune, Sanand, Vadodara
- S – Bengaluru, Vellore, Chennai, Kanchipuram

#Petroleum Refineries

2 stages: [1] Production / Drilling; [2] Refining
RM was less decisive factor as industries were already setup near coalfields & didn't move away (Industrial Inertia)
No weightloss of RM
All byproducts can be used
So refineries can be set up:

Location Type	Details
Near RM	Digboi, Assam / Koyali, Guj [Gujarat] — Disadv: ref[inery] will become useless after oil is exhausted; increased market cost
Near Market	For export-oriented & imported markets — eg. Japan (imports) so near ports — India's Jamnagar refinery near Sikka port (can make use of RM/oil from more than 1 oilfield)
At any intermediate location	—

#Factors Affecting Jamnagar Refinery

RM – Reliance has pipeline to transport oil from Salwa [illegible] to its Jamnagar refinery
Energy – own thermal power plants in the district
Labour – need skilled L [labour] (mobile) so not a deciding factor; + Sethupa township for 2500 employees
Transport – district connected to NH8 + Sikka port for exports

#Synthetic Fibres Industry Also Near Refineries

Main RM (benzene) is:
- Evaporable + hazardous → RM based (easy/light to transport so not market based)
- → Reliance entered synthetic business, petroleum refinery
- & even garment [only Vinat] = VERTICAL INTEGRATION

#Steel Plants

	Integrated	Mini
Description	Handles everything in 1 complex from procuring RM, making coal, blast furnace, steel & other alloys	Runs on electric furnace with scrap metal as input & located near industrial towns for recycling
Construction	Takes years to construct	Long gestation period
Location	In India concentrated in Damodar Valley Region	Usually away from integrated plants to meet local demand & to avoid competition from them
Examples	—	Eg. MH [Maharashtra]

Map labels:
- TISCO / Jamshedpur
- Durgapur, WB
- Rourkela, Odisha
- Bhilai, Segauli
- (4) Salem, TN
- Steel plants @ Vishweshwaraya, KN [Karnataka]

#Coffee Plantations

#Key Factors

Temp – protect from sunlight
Topo – abundant moisture but no waterlogging; hilly slopes
Cheap labour for handpicking
Market – loses flavour after roasting so roasted in importing country

#Global Example: Brazil (São Paulo)

#India: Kerala (WG [Western Ghats])

Red soil (best suited)
Hilly areas of Kozhikhode, Palakkad
Moderate temp
Kochi port for transport
IKE (Sealy through port) + local demand

India map – Coffee regions + NE states + Challenges box

Map labels:
- NE – Tripura, Nagaland etc.
- KN-TN (SW coast) / KP-Maku Valley / KR-21? / TN-ST-
- Challenges:
  1. Pendisease [pest/disease]
  2. Heavy rains – CC [Climate Change]
  3. Labour
  4. Low price

#Sugar Industry

#Sugar Mill vs Sugar Refinery

	Sugar Mill	Sugar Refinery
Input	Sugarcane	Raw, coarse brown sugar
Output	Brown sugar → further processing; Bagasse → fodder, energy, paper industry; Molasses → ethanol	Brown & white sugars of various grades
Location Principle	Located near sugar farming areas & bulky + perishable eg. UP, MH	Japan (rely on imports); Refineries setup @ ports or near markets

In South India, no ILD [?] / no frost = ideal moderate temp = perfect for industry but still it is not as large as UP–MH belt as:
1. North Indian farmers switched to sugarcane after Indigo cultivation
2. Farmers in south have better cash crop alternatives like cotton / tobacco / coconut

India map – Sugar belt (Terai belt marked in NW) with Pull Factors box

Map labels:
- Terai belt (N India, hatched area)
- Pull Factors:
  - Coops [cooperatives] in S
  - Year long crushing
  - High variety – high sucrose content
  - Capt [capital] avail[able]
  - Agglomeration benefits

#Rubber Plantations

#@ Malaysia (Tropics)

Climate – hot, moist, equatorial climate
Labour – immigrants from China + Tamils from India
Tech – Research Institute @ KL [Kuala Lumpur]
Govt policy – active support for replanting + quality control for exports

#@ Kerala

Climate – neither cold + abundant moisture
Soil – laterite is good for growth
Labour – skilled, needed, available

#Jute Industry

#@ West Bengal

RM – 90% cultivation in Kolkata hinterland; Jute can withstand flooding of the region
Energy – Raniganj & Jharia coallines [coalfields]
Water – Jute processing (washing → bleaching → retting) from Hooghly river
Labour – from Bihar, Odisha, WB
Capital – had good banking facilities as it was the capital [of British India]

#Challenges

Wage rates to be linked with goods → resentment by TUs [Trade Unions]
After partition, mills in India, producing areas in Pakistan
Outdated tech + no new investment
Competition from Bangladesh + synthetic fibres
Lack of marketing strategy to promote Indian jute

#Commercial Fishing

Well developed in N America & Europe but not in Asia:
1. Tropical climate (Asia) = fish can't be stored for long while cool temperate climate favours it
2. Coastline – relatively smooth in Asia + less harbour (natural) + continental shelves are narrower
3. Capital – CF [commercial fishing] requires large ships + high-tech equipment to scan fishing waters & thus high capital which is available in Europe/NAm [North America] but not in Asia
4. Species variety – tropical regions of Asia: multiple varieties but not in small groups → not good for large scale CF
- Trop[ical] fish = higher oil content = less desirable for eating
Leading nations: Japan / Norway / Dogger Bank, George Bank

#Problems of Sugar Industry [boxed note on p9]

No govt juice packaging
Dual prices
Strict copra [?] / trade policies [illegible]
Cane reserve policy
Obsolete machinery
By-products [under-utilised]

Diagram – Sugar Industry monopoly competition model: Two circles A (Mill) and B (Mill) with min distance between them and arrows showing market areas; labelled "no competition"

Diagram shows:
- Circle A (Mill) – arrows pointing outward showing market catchment
- Circle B (Mill) – arrows pointing outward showing market catchment
- Minimum distance between A & B
- "X = no competition" labelled between circles
- Concept: Mills located far enough apart that market areas don't overlap → no price competition

#Geography Mains

#Polar Vortex

Characterised by:
- Strong upper level winds
- Surround N Pole & S Pole
- Counter clockwise direction
- Polar low pressure system
Distortion leads to waves allowing cold air to push southwards

Stable PV: N pole at top; strong jet stream (labelled); L (low) at pole, H (high) at mid-lat; tight circulation
Wavy PV: weak jet stream; L pushed off-centre; H intrudes higher; cold air spills southward

#Why? Natural Causes

↓ in temp difference between Arctic & equator = weakened jet stream [JS]
Retreating ice = heat released in atm [atmosphere] = spurious winds that disrupt PV

#Humans

CO₂ ↑ in atm → cools polar stratosphere = ↑ temp difference between pole & equator = ↑↑↑ PV

#Mangroves

Benefits – buffer zone protecting land from erosion; shield against cyclones; biodiversity; fuel/timber/fodder; incense [income]
Threats – clearing, overharvesting; river changes (dams, freshwater diversion); overfishing; coral reef destruction; pollution; CC [Climate Change] (extremely sensitive to sea level changes)

#Monsoon Prediction & Challenges

On monsoon relies the fate of almost 50% of 1 pop[ulation]
Difficult to predict due to:
1. Topography of India makes the monsoon system very complex
2. Weather systems destabilize faster than extrapolation making studies difficult
3. Affected by multiplicity of factors

#Challenges in Forecast

Paucity [scarcity] of parameters – IMD [India Meteorological Dept] collects temp, humidity, wind etc through 679 auto stations, 550 surface observatories, radars & 3 satellites
- Still not enough (aerosols, dust, soil moisture etc)
Poor infra – 40 supercomputers, well calibrated & cleaned weather stations
1 in pol[?] – aerosols tend to change shape & characteristics of clouds = extreme rainfall but weakened monsoon
Impact of El Niño but exact reason still unknown
Western models not fine-tuned for Indian setting
40 professionals
National Monsoon Mission
- State of art climate model
- ✓ Time scale (16 days to one season)
- ✓ Improved predict[ion] of temp / rainfall
- ✓ Dynamic model with prediction on short, medium, extended range
- Indo-US Expedition (Sagun Nutri) to study SW [South-West] monsoon
- Supercomputing Mission

#Marine Ecosystem

~70% of earth; high salt content in water; extend from shore to deep sea floor
SDG 14 – Life Below Water

Near Shore	Offshore
Marshes	Surface ocean
Estuaries	Deep sea
Mangroves	Hydrothermal vents
Lagoon
Coral reef

#Significance

Provisioning services – seafood, energy, biomedicine, transportation
Regulating – climate, shoreline protect[ion], flood prevention, local climate
Cultural – educational, recreational, heritage, tourism
Supporting – bed maintenance, nutrient recycling, carbon sequestration, gas regulation
- (Produce 50% of O₂ & store 50% more CO₂ than atm [atmosphere])

#Threats

Overfishing, global warming, deforestation, pollution
Unplanned urban overexploit[ation] of resources
Offshore energy plants (bio[?]), ocean acidification, ocean heat waves
Changing land use patterns

#Marine Heatwave

Avg temp of water remains exceptionally high for 5 consecutive days
↑ by 50% over past 3 decades

Impacts:

Bleaching of corals – temp sensitive; eg. Caribbean coral reef
Destruction of kelp forest – need cooler water; eg. California
Dying sea grass (Mediterranean)
Ability to sequester carbon ↓
Thermal expansion of water
Local climate [disruption]

World map – Marine heatwave events marked: 2003 (Indian Ocean), 2011 (W Australia), "The Blob" 2013-16 (NE Pacific), "New Atlantic" 2012 (NW Atlantic)

Map annotations:
- 2003 – spiral mark near Indian Ocean / Bay of Bengal
- 2011 – spiral near W Australia coast
- The Blob (2013-16) – large oval in NE Pacific
- New Atlantic (2012) – large oval in NW Atlantic

Marine Protected Areas:

Gulf of Mannar, Kutch (5 in India) + SOP ban, STP
MARPOL
Greenpeace

#Marine Pollution – Causes

Sewage, chemicals, land runoff
Oil spills, ocean mining, plastic, noise, CO₂, coastal tourism, ports, aquaculture

Effects: Marine animals, coral reef, BOD ↓, dead zones, eutrophication, food chain, food security

#Role of Dust in Monsoon

→ Solar dimming effect – cause land surface to cool → rainfall ↓
→ Elevated heat pump pheno[menon] → hot sand rises in air → change in air pressure in atm → rainfall ↑ (feedback loop)
→ Cloud formation ↑
→ Snow darkening effect → ↑ in temp gradient / [illegible]

#Ocean Temperature

Horizontal OT graph:
- X-axis: 80°N → 0° → 80°S (latitude)
- Y-axis: Temperature
- Shape: bell curve – highest at equator, falls steeply poleward
- Note: ↓ in insolation as temp + latitude ↑
Vertical Thermocline diagram:
- Y-axis: Depth (400m → 1000m → 4500m)
- X-axis: Temp (0 → 8 → 16 → 24°C)
- Thermocline: sharp gradient layer between warm surface & cold deep water
Avg OT = 17°C
- → Determines energy eff[iciency]
- → Climate, global hydrological cycle
- → Evapo & precip[itation]

#Factors (Affecting Ocean Temp)

Ocean currents
Distribution of land & water
Prevailing winds
Latitude

#Ocean Pollution

Oil spills, eg. Brazil, MX [Mexico] – [illegible] 700 kl [?]
Mining
Effluent discharge
O[zone] warning [?]
Plastic
Noise

Impacts:

↑ habitat / marine ecosystem
O₂ depletion
Ocean acidification
Fish production ↓
Human health – food chain; eg. Minamata
Livelihood

#Ocean Warming – Cascade Flowchart

Box 1: Ocean Warming
- → ↓ in photosynthesis by phytoplankton
  - → Zooplankton & other marine organisms ↓
    - → Loss of fish population
Box 2: ↑ in GHGs as CO₂ → O₂ is less (Ocean Acid[ification] ↑)
- → Change in weather pattern
  - → Coral Bleaching
  - → Ca [Calcium] deposits at shallower depths get dissolved
All paths converge → Loss of Marine Ecosystem & Marine Industry

#Water Stress

Water footprint, Virtual water
NITI – 21 Indian cities incl. Delhi – out of GW [groundwater] by 2020
- 70% water contaminated
- 6% GDP
- 2/3rd M. [million] litres lost by ₹100 [illegible]

#1. Water Pollution – Arsenic, Fluoride

Frothy lakes & rivers

#2. Groundwater Crisis

Largest extractor
90% towards agri
Privately owned yet common pool resource

Causes of Groundwater Crisis:

↓ natural rate of recharge (5% of rainfall)
Drying of Mitra post monsoon = river recharge not possible [illegible]
Concretisation = ↓ area for recharge
Diversion of dam water meant for irrigation to industrial use = farmers turn to GW + cheap electricity + easy availability
Groundwater pollution – arsenic, WB
GRACE-FO → is water table ↓ at 0.3m/yr rate

#Cleaning Ganga – Aviral Dhara (Eflow)

Longest river – 2500 km; 26% of landmass, 43% pop[ulation]
Waste generated > treatment potential (particularly in UK–UP [Uttarakhand–UP] stretch)
- (12000 mn l[itres]/day generated vs 4000 mn l[itres]/day treatment capacity)
Source:
- Chemical effluents
  - Distilleries
  - Sugar mills
  - Paper mills
- Sewage
- Dead bodies
- Excreta
Bit industrial reason but disproportionate impact due to toxicity

End of Part 1 (Pages 1–15)

#Namami Gange & Water Bodies — Criteria and Plan

Criteria — coliform bacteria level, pH, BOD [Biochemical Oxygen Demand], dissolved salts (CRB [Central River Board] priorities)
Namami Gange — STP [Sewage Treatment Plant] = 63
- Ring Alarm — toilets in 1644 villages
- Industries — 1100 units closed down
- Rivers front cent = modern: 46 182 ghats, 115 cremation
How? Plan (NMCG) [National Mission for Clean Ganga]:
- → STP (HAM [Hybrid Annuity Model] mode)
- → replace woodfired crematoria with electric ones
- → river Dolphin [Gangetic Dolphin], place turtles
- → planting trees
- → tanneries — major polluters — min. discharge + treat it
- → efforts by controlling dams
- → NMCG — 37 permanent members mandated but only 3 [functioning]
- → cooperation b/w states
- Bhuvan Ganga mobile app — people can report sources
- Ganga Prahari
- CSR → waterless chrome tanning

#Impact of CC [Climate Change] on Water Bodies

Intensify of global hydrological cycle
alter river flow regimes → surface water avail. ↓
extreme precipitation → floods
sea level rise
warming of oceans
↓ precip. & ↑ evapotranspiration = ↓ gw [groundwater] recharge
↑ dol. [demand] for water = stress on WBs [water bodies] ↑
coastal waters
↑ amt. of water that atm. [atmosphere] can hold = more rainfall
heavy rainfall = ↑ runoff & less seepage = more water flows to WBs
pressure on water reservoirs
↑ glacier melting = ↑ river flow in short run, ↓ in long run

#Flash Floods

eg. Hyderabad flood 2019 — 191 mm of rain in a few hrs, 70 died
= excessive rainfall in short period of time

#Why?

→ rivers which are narrow & steep
→ small rivers in urban areas with hard surfaces (rainwater doesn't seep in)
→ a dam or levee failure
→ urbanisation + deforestation
→ difficult to predict

#How to Avoid?

→ planting vegetation, terracing hillsides, construction of floodways
South Asian Flash Flood Guidance System

#Heatwaves

= period of abnormally high temp. more than normal max. temp.
→ typically in Mar–June

#IMD [India Meteorological Department] Criteria

IMD Heatwave Criteria Table — Region/Max Temp and Departure from Normal scale

IMD Criteria Table:

Region	Max Temp
Plains	40°C or more
Coastal	37°C or more
Hilly	30°C or more

Departure from Normal:
- 4.5–6.4°C → Heat wave
- 6.4°C → Severe heat wave

#Favourable Conditions for Heatwaves

prevalence of hot air over a region
absence of moisture in upper atm. [atmosphere]
cloudless sky
anti-cyclonic conditions

#Usually Develop Over NW India

due to presence of above normal [temperature] there & spread towards E & S but not W since prevailing winds are westerly to north westerly

Map shows NW India (Rajasthan/Punjab area) as heat origin, spreading E & S

#Health Impact

heat cramps
heat exhaustion
heat stroke

#Delhi Pollution

#Why Rises in October Each Year?

withdrawal of monsoons by Oct & predominant wind change to N. Westerly
drop in temp & low air movt. [movement] = concentration of pollutants
laws in PB [Punjab] & HR [Haryana] delaying sowing paddy makes farmers to burn stubble to sow wheat
Diwali time

#Steps Taken → CRAAP [Comprehensive Action Plan for Air Pollution]

→ BSIV–BSVI from April 2020
→ NAAQs [National Ambient Air Quality Standards] → NASI [?]
→ ban on burning biomass
→ green crackers
→ smog towers
→ happy seeder

#Himalayan Ecosystem

fragile & diverse
51 mn. who practice hill agri. [agriculture]

#Importance

ecological security, forest cover, feed the perennial rivers — drinking water, aug. [augment] HEP [Hydroelectric Power], biodiversity hotspot, spectacular landscape for tourism, role in monsoon, cultural importance, trad. knowledge (medicines)

#Key Concerns in IHR [Indian Himalayan Region]

socio demographic MH [migration hazard] — out-migration
stewardship degrad. — human WR [wildlife] conflict, forest fires, springs drying up
security — depop. [depopulation] from border & remote areas
synergy deficits

#Recommended → Global Sustainable Tourism Council

For a destination → destination mgmt, tourism seasonality mgmt, CC adapt., crisis & emergency mgmt, solid waste mgmt
For hotels/tour operators → legal compliance, integrity pact, cultural interaction

#Action Agenda for States

CBM [Capacity Building Measures]
REID [?]
Finance & MRE [Monitoring, Reporting & Evaluation]
Plan → Implement → Monitor [boxed/highlighted]

#Thermal Power Plants

#Impact

located in water scarce areas
resource intensive
polluting [CSE [Centre for Science and Environment] says TPPs account for 40% of total freshwater withdrawn by all industries]
responsible for 40% of total freshwater withdrawn by all industries
emissions cause lung diseases, smog, acid rain

#Emissions from Industry Table

Thermal power plant emissions table — CO2/PM/NOx/Mercury

Pollutant	%
CO2	[illegible]
PM	45%
CO2	[illegible]
NOx	30%
Mercury	80%

CSE says TPPs account for 45% CO2, 30% NOx, 80% Mercury emissions from industry

#Himalayan Ecosystem (continued) — NMSHE [National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem]

est. 2010, 11 states, 2 UTs
Obj. — formulate appro. [appropriate] policy to ensure sustained ecosys. [ecosystem] maint. [maintenance]
- sustainably safeguarding HE [Himalayan Ecosystem]
- address issues like glaciers, natural hazards, biod. [biodiversity] protection, trad. knowledge, restoration & rehab.

#Sustainable Tourism in IHR — NITI [Aayog]

pilgrimage tourism → modern → mass →
CAGR [Compound Annual Growth Rate] of 7.91 over last decade
local people — eco & business oppo. [opportunity]
- states — revenue
- entrepreneurs — profit
Himalayan circuit under Swadesh Darshan

#Impact

→ poll. [pollution], overexploit. of resources, food insecurity, ill-planned urban, traffic congestion, loss of indig. [indigenous] culture, natural disasters, waste disposal

#Unconventional Gas Reservoirs

= occur in relatively impermeable sandstones
more expensive to exploit
eg. shale gas, CBM [Coal Bed Methane]

#CBM [Coal Bed Methane]

trapped in coal seams
accessed by drilling wells into coal seam & pumping large qty. of water. Water occupy gas & pushes out the gas
I has estimated 100–990 bn. [billion] cubic m. of CBM

#Problems in Extraction

capital intensive
advanced tech
pvt. co.-restricted laws + low price

#Shale Gas

1 — Cambay basin, Assam Arakan b. [basin], Gondwana b. [basin]
tech. used to find shale k/a [known as] fracking [highlighted/boxed]
deep vertically drilling → horizontal drilling in all directions → hydro-fracturing / fracking i.e. using HP [High Pressure] water to create fissures to push gas out
guar [highlighted] grown in HR/RJ eases the process by turning water into gel

#Problems [of Shale Gas]

envt. [environmental] damage due to fracking
possible contamination of groundwater
water intensive

#CBM vs Shale Gas

CBM occurs much closer than shale gas, to the surface
shale resources = 65 billion [boxed] cubic feet but CBM = 450 tcf [trillion cubic feet]
so focus on less risky CBM

#Impact of CC [Climate Change] on Cyclones

Trajectory/Origin — dev. [develop] around lower latitudes than usual (3–10°N). eg. Fani (2°E [?]) [circled/boxed] thus gathers more moisture & develops more severe
Intensity/Time — usually Apr–May; now no cyclones but Fani
Rapid Intensification — Fani meandered over sea for 11 days
Post landfall — usually die off on hitting land, Fani reached Cuttack & Bhubaneswar (30–40 km inside)
Location — occur in Arabian Sea now, not BOB [Bay of Bengal], but near SI [Sri Lanka] coast. Taukae on west coast
Recurvature — towards E to W coast (Ockhi)

#Cyclone Ockhi Track Map

Cyclone Ockhi path — India peninsula map with inset track diagram

Track: originates near Sri Lanka coast (Arabian Sea/BOB), curves northward, hits west coast

#Pharma Industry — Location Factors

Pharma industry distribution map of India

Location determined by:
1. Proximity to chemical industry eg. Jamnagar in GJ [Gujarat]
2. To ports
3. agri. [agriculture], low taxation
4. favourable govt. policy
5. Infra
6. labour avail.
7. avail. of pristine quality water — hilly states — for API [Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient]

#Earthquakes

Eq. swarm — low intensity eq. [earthquake]
- localised region
- over a period of time
- no clear sequence of foreshock, mainshock & aftershock
- normal in peninsular India
- eg. Palghar, 30 in 2019

#Earthquake Zones in India

Earthquake seismic zones map of India — zones 2 to 5 marked

Him. [Himalayan] range — zone 4, 5; JK [Jammu & Kashmir], Bihar, UK [Uttarakhand], NE; border of tectonic plate
zone 5 due to intra-plate seismicity [west side]
zone 3 fault plane, eq. swarm [SW]
zone 4 Delhi
zone 5 eq. due to volcanism [SE — Andaman]
Eq. zones in India → GSI [Geological Survey of India] + BIS [Bureau of Indian Standards]

#Mitigation

V. mapping
community preparedness — DROP, COVER, HOLD → sensitize
building codes — analyze soil types before design
SARC [?] seismological agency
Eq. plan for Him. [Himalayas]
re-evaluate sites for large dams & nuclear installations from seismic p.o.v. [point of view]

#Volcanoes

#Causes

convergent — subduction of 1 plate under another & melting of rocks which rises along fissure
diverging — thinning of upper crust & ↑ in rock pressure, ↑ in melting pt. [point] formation of magma
continental V [volcanoes] — due to stressing of plate & creation of faults

#Pacific Ring of Fire

	N	S
W	[illegible]	[illegible]
E	[illegible]	[illegible]

14 V → 15 Q → W
25 V → 707 Q → W [illegible]

#Hazard of Volcanoes

air poll. [pollution]
↑ life & prop. [property loss]
loss of vege. [vegetation] & wildlife
secondary disasters like tsunami, eg. mud flow
CC — a small ice age
↑ in temp. in surrounding area

#Benefits of Volcanoes

fertile soil
scenic beauty
add to extensive plateau/[illegible] V [illegible]
produces valuable minerals & gases
cooling effect

#Glacial Retreat — NTH [National Tribunal on Himalayas] — 4/3 [?] will retreat by 4100 [illegible]

HK [Hindukush] Him. [Himalaya] Assessment reveals more than 35% of glaciers in region could retreat by 2100

Causes — GHG [Greenhouse Gases], deforest., ice breaking ships, open water
Consequences:
- ↓ alter river flows
  - ↓ Irrig. [irrigation]
  - ↓ hydropower
  - ↓ ecosys. services
- biod. [biodiversity] loss eg. blue bear, penguins
- coral reef [bleaching] — due to rise in SL [sea level]
- scarcity of fw. [freshwater] — 70% of fw. is in glacial form
- ↑ in ocean levels
- ↓ GW [groundwater]
- affect monsoon
- ↑ Bioaccumulation of envt. [environmental] pollutants like DDT become airborne & get deposited on ice → released during melting

#Aravalli

Relic [old] mountains
runs from Delhi to Mt. Abu

#Significance

lungs for highly polluted Delhi NCR
natural shield against creep of Thar Desert
stop dust laden winds from RJ [Rajasthan]
recharge of [gw] [groundwater] [boxed]
source of rivers — Sabarmati, Banas, Chambal
rich biod. [biodiversity] (Mt. Abu)
tourism (Mt. Abu)
HR [Haryana] has lowest forest cover — barely 3% [circled] — so Mewali [Mewat] is key

#Problems [with Aravalli]

28% [circled] vanished in RJ [Rajasthan] due to illegal quarrying
depleting aquifers
drying of rivers & lakes eg. Badkhal [boxed]
air poll. [pollution]
man-animal conflict ↑
↓ water table

#Illegal Mining

no alternative livelihood
high dist. of construction mat.
→ the irony of SC [Supreme Court] guide [?]

#Soil Formation

2015 Report of Indian Institute of Remote Sensing:
- 147 mn. ha of land is eroded in India
- every year, India loses 68 bn. [billion] rupees due to SE [soil erosion]
Factors controlling soil formation:
- Parent Rock → [interacts with] Topography
- Temp. → [interacts with] Time
- Precipitation → Biological activity

#Fronts

= boundary zone b/w 2 airmasses (frontogenesis)
→ middle lat. [latitudes], not trop. [tropics]
→ steep gradient in temp.
→ cause cloud form. [formation] & precip. [precipitation]
→ cond. [condensation]: temp. difference & opposite direction

Three front types — Warm, Cold, Occluded cross-section diagrams

Warm front — warm air → slides over cold air at gentle angle; warm front labelled; cold air below
Cold front — cold air → undercuts warm air steeply; cold front labelled
Occluded front — cold air (from both sides) + warm front + warm air lifted; cold air on both sides

#Jet Streams

swift & narrow [highlighted] W-flowing winds
in upper tropo. [troposphere]
help to comp. [complete] global circuit [highlighted]
found near junction of F, H, P [Ferrel, Hadley, Polar] cells [boxed]
areas where air masses of diff. T [temperature] meet
surface T [temperature] determines where JS will form

Jet stream diagram — Hadley/Ferrel/Polar cells with jet stream positions

Diagram shows 3 pairs of circulation cells (Hadley, Ferrel, Polar) with jet streams (circled) at junctions

Type	Jet Streams
Permanent	↓ Polar, ↓ Subtropi. [Subtropical]
Temporary	↓ Somali Jet, ↓ Trop. Easterly Jet [affects monsoon]

temporary → affects I [India] monsoon

#Ocean Currents

Factors:
- NH [Northern Hemisphere] → right; SH [Southern Hemisphere] → left [Coriolis effect]
- Heating by solar energy
- Earth's rotation → planetary winds
- Wind eg. Chilean tip delivers: [illegible] wind shift as Humboldt current
- Gravity
- Salinity
- Ocean bottom topo. [topography] eg. MOC [Meridional Overturning Circulation] in Atlantic
- Upwelling & downwelling
Surface → warm; deep water → cold

#Effects

regulate global climate
free navigation eg. Gulf Stream [boxed] keeps Russia's [Arctic] port navigable
distribute minerals, fishes
W. [Western] coast by warm currents = climate [boxed] in check
mixing of C [cold] — fishing grounds eg. Japan
World map [mentioned — see page 26 original for detail]

#Deserts

Regions of low precip. [precipitation] and having hostile cond. [conditions] for survival of plant & animal life
→ hot / semi-arid / coastal / cold

#Factors [for Desert Formation]

Wind — (N 25°–30° N&S → offshore) eg. Sahara [underlined]
cold currents eg. Atacama [boxed/underlined]
leeward side aka Rainshadow desert eg. Gobi desert [underlined]
absence of mtn. [mountain] to cause orographic rain eg. Marali [?] & Thar dune [underlined]
cold deserts in polar areas due to v. [very] cold air
weathering process

#Forest Fire Causes

Natural	Anthropic
dryness + high temp.	shifting cultiv. [cultivation]
lightning due to thunderstorms	to collect non-timber products of honey collection in [illegible]
heat of [illegible] in mtn.	to conceal illegal felling
volcanic eruptions	camp fires
	beautify

#Western Disturbances

Temp. [Temperate] cyclones originating in Medi. [Mediterranean] & Caspian sea region during early winter to early summer
→ frontal [underlined] structure is usually missing
→ if present → occluded fronts [underlined]

Western Disturbance path sketch — cyclone track entering Kashmir Valley

Karakoram = most impacted
enters Kashmir Valley in India in Nov. [November], continues till May
Consequences:
- (-) cold waves
- (-) extreme events
- (-) damage to Rabi [crops]
- (-) cloudbursts — 18 [?] 2013 big one, anomalous WD
- (-) systems that interact w. local features & cause regional [disasters]
- (-) dust storm
produces cond. [conditions] of cold wave → night temp. can drop by 10°C → Rabi crop in I. [India]
brings crucial snowfall in W. [Western] Him. [Himalayas]
frequency & intensity keeps decreasing till May
10% of rainfall in India due to WD [Western Disturbances]
Due to CC, intensity ↑ [changed] = ↑ in Feb–May = Rabi crops destroyed
frequency ↓

#"Any scheme/initiative is both enabler & beneficiary of other schemes"

eg. Skill India of Digital India, Make in India, Smart City

#Dedicated Freight Corridors

= mega-rail [underlined] transport project being undertaken to:
- ↑ transport capacity
- ↓ cost per unit
- improve service quality

#Significance

Economic gain — multiplier effect — ↓ logistics cost
green growth — shift from road to rail — 2.5 x less emi. [emissions] over 30 yr. [year] period [electric locomotives boxed]
better operational profile of Railways — avg. speed 100 kmph → still ↑ in time
Make in India
decongested roads
complement Bharat Sagar Mala

#Wetlands

Types: Aquatic, Terrestrial, Marine [3-circle Venn diagram]

#Uses

biod. [biodiversity] rich — endemism
flood control
frontline defence [migratory birds]
Earth's filters
carbon sequester
agric. [agriculture] / farming / livelihood
water mgmt. eg. & Kolkata
tourism & medicinal care

#Causes for Loss

natural disasters
agri [agriculture]
poll. [pollution]
waste disposal / mining
construction of HEP [Hydroelectric Power]
Infra dev.

#Measures

[Natl] → NWCP [National Wetland Conservation Programme] — Wtld. Mgmt. Rules [highlighted]
[Intl] → Ramsar [Convention]
Natl. Wetland Atlas, 2011 — 2,01,503 wetlands
eg. PB [Punjab] & HC [High Court] declaring [a wetland] a living entity

#Wetlands Mgmt. [Management] Rules, 2016

follows wise use principle of RC [Ramsar Convention]
CWRA — power to states
no time limit for notif. [notification] (12m in 2010 rules)
no 'restricted act.' [restricted activities list]
no prov. [provision] of citizen check

#Issues

→ some wetlands dropped eg. paddy, UNESCO WHS etc.
→ states are susceptible to local pressure → mismanagement
→ CWRA = long experience & tech. know-how
→ no role to local people
→ trans-state W. [wetland] mgmt. will be affected

#Way Fwd. [Forward]

data bank
citizen check
cooperative & localised approach

#HDI [Human Development Index]

HDI index tree diagram — Health / Education / Standard of Living branches

HDI Index branches:
- Health → life expect. [expectancy] at birth
- Educ. [Education] → Mean yrs. of schooling + Expected yrs. of schooling
- Std. of living [Standard of Living / GNI] → Per capita income

#Criticism of HDI

avg. [average] value of 3 — Middle East = high HDI category: income & edu. ↑ but health ↓
spiritual well-being? narrow perspective
neglected qualitative aspect of H&E [Health & Education]

#Apiculture

= maintenance of beehives [for] honey, beeswax

#Favde [Advantages]

agro-based act. [activity] to supplement farm income (2x)
nutritional security
pollination necessary for human survival
sustains plant biod. [biodiversity] [underlined]
beekeeping is benign — doesn't destroy habitat
undertaken by landless farmers too
creating value from wastelands [underlined]
requires minimal funds (Rs.1–2L [lakh])
Rs. 75 L [lakh] money to maintain 10,000 bee colonies [boxed] → employment & gen. potential
Natl. [National] Comm. [Commission] on Agri. [Agriculture]
export potential

#Monsoon in India

#Summer Monsoon Diagram

Summer monsoon cross-section — ITCZ, Cherrapunji, arrows showing moisture flow, Equator

Shows ITCZ [Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone] arching northward over India in summer
Cherrapunji labelled (highest rainfall)
Arrows showing moisture flow from equatorial region northward into India
Equator marked at bottom
[Note: "Redo :)" written on original — author marked this for revision]

#Winter Monsoon Diagram

Winter monsoon cross-section — winds reversed, flow from India to equator

Shows wind reversal in winter — outgoing flow from India towards equator
75% of Its [India's] rainfall [boxed] — boxed statistic on page

#Impact of Monsoon — 75% of India's Rainfall

Impact of Monsoon three-column table — Ecological / Economic / Social

Ecological	Economic	Social
provides India its unique flora & fauna	1 budget is a gamble in monsoon	culture related to it eg. Basant panchmi
eco. [ecological] disasters of floods / droughts	55% area w/in fed. [fed?] farming	affects migration pattern
rivers	farm loan waiver	health hazards during summer monsoon eg. cholera, dengue
	Ex. & Import	GNI [?] = per capita income ↑
	rural economy	drinking water needs
	emp. [employment] 48% [?]
	hydropower

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